TITLE:
A Comparative Study of Ahom Administration With Indian Administration
Introduction:
The Ahom are members of the Shan branch of Tai or Thai family of the South East Asia. They entered in early 13th century from the eastern side and ruled Assam for 600 years. In this long 600 years role, they had an organized limited monarchy type of administration. Though this administration was not an adequate one like of modern time but it had certainly something which ensures its continuity for long 600 years. The Ahom administration was different from the modern administration. Though it has differences but we can find out some similarities between these two systems. To be more precise we can say that the Ahom administration had some features of modern democratic administration which India follows. So this paper is an attempt to compare the administration of Ahom with the modern Indian administration. In comparing the two models of administration I adopt several approaches like structural functional approach, political culture, decision making approach etc.
Ahom administration:
As this paper is a comparative analysis of Ahom administration with modern Indian administration so it is important to have an idea of what type of administration Ahom had. The Ahom society was a traditional society with traditional administration. Ahom administration was monarchical with lots of democratic values. Sir Edward Gait in his book “A History of Assam” said about Ahom administration as “monarchy was the normal form the Government although it was somewhat peculiar.” The Ahom administration was partly monarchial and partly aristocratic. N.N Acharyya in his book “The History of medieval Assam” called Ahom administration as “oligarchical monarchy”. The Ahom had a well organized administration which was a hierarchical system with several levels. A discussion about different officials, dignities and portfolios of the administration of Ahom can clear the model of that administration.
a) The King and the Royal families: The king who in Tai language called as Sargadeo was the virtual head of the state. He was the apex structure of the administration. The family from which the king belongs was known as “Royal Family”. Generally the son of the king becomes the next king. If the king had more then one son than the selection of the king was depended upon the collective decision of the Gohains.
b) Council of ministers: The next level in Ahom administration was the council of ministers. “There was council of ministers comprising of five ministers. They were altogether knows as patramantri which included the Borgohain, the Burhagohain, Barpatragohain, Barbaruah and Barphukan.”(Konwar)
a. The Gohains: There were three Gohains in Ahom administration. The king had to consult with these Gohains. The Gohain had the power to determine the succession of the monarch.
b. The BarBaruah and BarPhukan: The BarBaruah had to perform three fold functions- Administrative, Judicial and Military. Barphukan was entrusted with the responsibility of maintenance of diplomatic relations with Bengal, Bhutan etc.
c) Other local governors: They had the tradition of appointing some other local governors like Sadiakhowa Gohain, Marangikhowa Gohain etc. Besides that, Ahom kingdom also allowed some lesser kings who were known as Puwali Rajah.
d) Phukans: Phukan were the subordinate officials of Barbaruah and Barphukan. Both Barbaruah and Barphukan had six Phukan under them.
e) The baruas or the civilians: There were some Baruas allotted with Particular department. They were like Bhandari Barua or bar Bhandar Barua or Bharali Barua (treasurer) Bezbaruah (physician) etc.
f) The Khels: The Khels were the organized form of Paiks with certain gradation. The Khels were conducted by different officials at different gradation. The smallest unit of khel contains of 20 paiks and it is controlled by an officer known as Bora.
g) The paiks system: The paik system was one of the unique arrangements of Ahom administration. Paiks were the labour cum soldier of Ahom administration. The paiks had to indulge themselves in agriculture and other developmental activities in normal situation and in war they had to serve as soldiers. These paiks were organized in Gots. Each Got contained four Paiks.
This was the structure of Ahom administrative system or administration. The functioning of Ahom administration was also peculiar. In Ahom administration king was supreme authority, but he used to discuss with its ministers in the time of taking important decisions. The ministers and other officials had also great power in several fields.
Indian Administration:
Here by Indian administration my focus will be on the Union government, not the state government. India is a democratic nation with decentralize administrative system. It is a nation where there are two heads- prime minister as the real head and president as the nominal head. The structure of Indian administration is modern with separation of power and division of power. The model of Indian administration can be understood by discussing the structure of Indian administration.
1. President and Prime minister: In India prime minister is the head of the government as well as the real head and the president is the head of the state as well as the nominal head. K. K. Ghai in his book “Indian Government and Politics” said about the relation of prime minister with president as “all the powers of the President are exercised by the Prime Minister and the council of minister.” President is elected indirectly where as the leader of the majority party in Lok Sabha is selected as the prime minister.
2. Council of Ministers: Another level in Indian administration is the council of ministers. It is consist of the Prime Minister and such other ministers. They are appointed by the president. Its prime duty is simply to aid and advice the president. But in reality the council of minister enjoys all power meant for president. The members of the council of minister are responsible to the parliament.
3. MPs: Indian parliament is consisting of President and the two houses- Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. In Lok Sabha Members of Parliament are directly elected and in Rajya Sabha members are elected indirectly. MPs of Look Sabha are responsible to the citizen of India.
4. Civil Servants: another important structure of Indian administration is the civil service. It’s recruited on the basis of merit. There are several offices to carry out administrative works. For example there is IAS, IPS, IFS, etc. The nation is divided into several small parts for smooth administration like District, block, subdivision etc. and there are offices like district commissioner, block development officer etc are to carry out administrative work.
5. Governor: The governor is the head of the state. He is appointed by the president as the agent of the center in the state. He is the nominal head of the state.
A comparative study:
From the above study we can have a rough idea about the administration or administrative system of India and administrative system of Ahom. With the help of these ideas we can have a comparison between the two. For that we can use several approaches.
A) Structural Functional Approaches:
The structural functional approach explains various kind of political structure with respect to their performance in the administration. The society is treated as a single inter connected system in which each part of the social system has its own distinct features. This approach assume that administration is merely a subsystem of main social system which performs the function of making legitimate policy decisions. As the vary title of this approach suggest, it revolves around two key concepts – a) structures and b) functions. By structure it refers to those arrangements within the system which performs the functions. These are the institutional arrangement. On the other hand functions are those observed consequence which make for the adaptation or readjustment of a given system.
From this approach there are lots of similarities and dissimilarities between Ahom administration and the Indian administration. Similarities of Ahom and Indian administration are:
1. Both have some similar offices like the Phukans, Baruas of Ahom and District commissioner and block development officers of Indian administration.
2. As Indian administration has the position of governor in Ahom administration also there was a tradition of appointing some other local governors like Sadiakhowa Gohain.
3. In both administrations we can see the council of ministers. In Ahom they were the Gohains where as in India they are the ministers who assist the executive.
These are the similarities from structural point of view. Some dissimilarity is also there. These are:
1. India is a democratic nation where as Ahom administrative was a monarchial nation.
2. In Indian administration there are two heads but in Ahom administration there was only one head.
3. In Indian administration the council of ministers are elected and they are responsible to the parliament but in Ahom neither council of ministers are elected nor they responsible to anyone apart from the king.
4. Khel and Paik systems are some unique features of Ahom administrative structure but it is not seen in Indian administration.
B) Political Culture Approach:
Political Culture is the set of attitudes, believes sentiments and norms which give order and meaning to a political process and which provide the underlying assumptions and rules that govern behaviour in the administration. We can also compare the Ahom administration with modern Indian administration with the help of analyzing political culture of both.
The comparison of political culture of both Ahom administration and Indian administration indicates the following similarities:
1. It both the administrations there were at least some level of democracy with at least some level of decentralization of power.
2. In Ahom administration the king was generally from royal family and generally the son of the king becomes the next king. In Indian administration also there is such a tradition of family politics, where the son of a political leader becomes leader of the next generation. For that we can refer the Gandhi family.
3. Another similarity between the two governments, from political culture approach is that in booth the apex authority (in Ahom administration, the King and in Indian administration the Prime minister) has a tradition of consulting with its ministers.
These are the major similarities between Ahom administration and Indian administration from political culture approach. Apart from these similarities there is some dissimilarity also. These are:
1. Both have different level of political participation. In India the level of political participation is more than the Ahom.
2. Another difference between the two is that the tradition of Paik system is not visible in Indian administration, which is an important feature of Ahom administration.
4. Most important difference between the Ahom administration and the Indian administration is that one had faith on monarchy and the other have democratic norms and believes.
3) System Approach:
The system approach envisages the administration as a subsystem of the larger social system which is constantly engaged in communication with entities and systems outside its own boundaries. From system approach also there are some similarities between the Ahom administration and Indian administration. These are:
1. Both follow a hierarchical administration system. In Ahom administration the king was in apex level and Paiks were in bottom level. And in India also prime minister and president is in top level and others are inferior to him.
2. In Indian administration we can see the specialization of functions. For example the auditor general is for audit, the members of planning commission is for planning etc. Like that in Ahom administration also the Bhandari Baruah was for treasure, to look up the health of the royal family there was Bezbaruah.
These are the similarities from system approach. The system approach also highlighted some differences between the two administrative systems. These are:
1. Indian administration is characterized by separation of power. Here executive is separate from judiciary. But in Ahom administration there was no separation of power.
2. If we comparatively discuss the Military system of Ahom and India, we will find lots of dissimilarities. The Ahom military system was based on Paik system but Indian military structure is a modern one.
Conclusion:
The comparative study between Ahom administration and the Indian administration shows that both the administration has some similarities as well as dissimilarities. The Ahom administration was the pre modern administration whereas the Indian administration is a modern administration, the Ahom administration is a monarchical administration whereas India is a democratic nation. Despite of such dissimilarities both have some similarities like the position of king and the Prime minister, the role of council of ministers etc.
So to conclude with one can say that Indian administration has some features which were also in Ahom administration. It also implies the nature of Ahom administration. The observation also highlights how both have similarities in structure, function; political culture, political behaviour etc and also we can see the dissimilarities in that area.
Reference list:
1. Acharyya, N.N, “The History of Medieval Assam”, Western book depot, Guwahati, 1966.
2. Avasthi, A. P, “Indian Administration” Educational Publishers, Agra, 2001.
3. Gait, Edward, “A History of Assam” Bina Library, Assam, 1905.
4. Ghai, K.K, “Indian Government and Politics”, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, 2003.
5. Gogoi, Lila, “Tai Sanskritir Ruprekha” Banalata, Dibrugarh 1994.
6. Konwar, Narayan, “Society and Politics in Assam” Bookland, Panbazar, 2006.
7. Ray S.N. “modern comparative politics, approaches, methods and issues. Prentice hall of India, New Delhi, 2003.
Sunday, August 29, 2010
ASSAM MOVEMENT: A THEORETICAL OUTLOOK
TITLE:
ASSAM MOVEMENT:
A THEORETICAL OUTLOOK
Jointly Prepared by Pankaj Bora and Bitapi Bora.
Any part of the work is not permitted to reproduce without prior permission of the authors.
Introduction:
Social Movements are the popular uprisings. A social movement is a form of collective behaviour in which a large number of people are associated to promote or defy any change in the society. There are different types of social movements like Alternative social movements, Reformative social movements, Transformative social movements, Reactionary social movements etc. Social Movements are different in nature, objective and ideology etc. A social movement can be explained from various theories.
This paper is also an attempt to explain Assam Movement from various theories. The paper tries to see Assam Movement from various perspectives. Various writers of social movement had viewed Assam movement from various angles. To some it is a movement by upper caste Assamese people for there socio-politico-economic interest. To some others it is a movement for the safeguard of Assamese nationalities and to some others again it is a movement resulted by relative deprivation. So there are various views or theories to explain Assam Movement.
So it is become important to know Assam Movements from various theoretical perspectives. This paper, titled as “Assam Movement: A Theoretical Outlook”, is a paper which tries to observe Assam Movement from various angles. Here the paper tries to see how we can see Assam Movement from various theoretical bases and how scholars had observed it from various theories.
Importance of theorizing a movement:
Theory means a well-focused mental look taken at something in a state of consideration with the intent to grasp or understand that. It is a guide to practice, adds much to what is merely described clarifies hypotheses, and as a part of philosophy explains an issue which meets the requirements of both reason and vision. Theory as a mental outlook provides a systematic interpretation over the definite case variables. It is an exact communication of the incidents happened in the moment of time. Thus as a method of analysis the case happened in past, it provides a well set typology of assumption and interest of larger magnitude. It gives a scope for understand a situation through a given framework paradigm.
In such a narrative Assam Movement can also been theories in various theorizations of facts and figure. It could be seen in some varied angle. In short by looking into the gravity, character, motive, result and back up forces Assam movement, it can be theorizing in several parallel line of understanding.
The theoretical outlook of Assam Movement provides us a better understanding of the movements. With the help of theorizing Assam Movement one can know about the nature, scope, cause, leadership, support base and opponent of the movement. The theoretical understanding of the Assam Movement also strengthens the knowledge base of the movement. It opens new angles of analyzing the Assam Movement. So because of these above reason it is important to see Assam Movement from various perspectives.
A glimpse on Assam Movement:
The Assam movement like all other significant social movements has its roots in history and society from which it emerged. Assam movement like other social movement does not rise all of a sudden; rather there have been a rising confusion and discontent among the Assamese middle class and the Assamese people at large, which outburst in a form of a movement. Though, a feeling of deprivation and the peoples expectations rises since earlier, yet it got more visible form in the mid of 1979. With the issue of immigration, Assam Movements starts and end up with the enhancing of Assam’s infrastructural development, in a form of an Accord, known as “Assam Accord”.
Assam Movement refers to that movement which demands to stop the illegal migration of foreigner to Assam from neighboring countries. There participation in electoral process and deportation of all foreigners living illegally in Assam and also to enable the people of Assam to protect their distinct identity. The movement started in 1979 under the leadership of the ASSU and AAGSP.
To understand a movement it is important to know about the components of the movement like ideology, objectives, organization, social condition, supporters, opponents, leadership, benefited people etc. So to understand Assam Movement in a better way it is important to know these entire components. The ideology of Assam Movement was the ideology of sub nationalism, the objectives of the movement were to detect and deport foreigner from the land, economic development of the region and its inhabitants and to some scholars there was also a hidden objective of gaining political power. All Assam Student Union (AASU), All Assam Gana Sangram Parishad (AAGSP) were the main organizations behind Assam Movement. Leadership of the movement was provided by the leaders of the two organizations. They were like P.K. Mahanta, B.K Phukan etc. If some one talk about the social condition of Assam during Assam Movement then the person must say it was an underdeveloped society where in many areas outsiders (Non-Assamese) had a better position then the locals. Assam Movement was largely supported by the inhabited of Assam. The Assamese middle class supported the movement. The villain or the opponent of Assam Movement was the central government. The movement was essentially against outsiders. The people benefited from the movement were the middle class Assamese people. They gain both economic and political benefit from the movement.
Theories of Assam Movement:
In the previous part of the paper we had a rough idea about Assam Movement. Now in this part I will try to explain Assam Movement from various angles or from various theoretical perspectives. Generally one can explicate the movement from assortment of theories but in this paper I will try to focus only on five theories. These are:
1. Theory of Class approach
2. Theory of structural conduciveness
3. Theory of Relative deprivation
4. Theory of Reference groups and
5. The Theory of Resource Conflict etc.
All these theories nicely reflect the nature and cause of Assam Movement. Some of these theories also indicate the outcome of the movement. So let’s have a brief study of Assam Movement in the sphere of these theories
1. Theory of Class approach:
Theory of Class Approach was developed by Karl Marx and its successor. This theory highlights the economic exploitation of people as a cause of a movement. It also examines the class character of the movement. It tries to explain a movement by reflecting the leader class and the beneficiary class.
Assam Movement can be explained from this theory. In Assam Movement we can see the class character of the movement. Prof. Manirul Hussain in his book “The Assam Movement, Class, Ideology and Identity” and Amalendu Guha in his article “Little Nationalism Turned Chauvinist: Assam’s Anti-Foreigner Upsurge” discussed about the class character of Assam Movement.
The Assam Movement was movement against the resource exploitation of India. It was a movement by the oppress class of the Assamese society. And this movement was led or supported by the Assamese middleclass to promote there interest. To the scholars Assam Movement was a movement for the benefit of the Assamese educated middle class. So all these factor reflects the class character of the movement. Or to say the class approach to Assam Movement explains it as it is a movement because of economic exploitation leaded by Assamese middle class for their interest.
2. Theory of Structural Conduciveness:
Theory of structural conduciveness is another theory of social movement. The theory of structural conduciveness is proposed by Neil J. Smellser. He identifies six conditions that led to social movement. These are structural conduciveness, structural strains, growth and spread of generalized belief, precipitating factors, mobilization of factors and mechanism of social control.
One can see Assam Movement from structural conduciveness theory also. The Assam movement also had these conditions said by Smellser in his theory. The Assam movement was a movement in independent democratic society and the structure is conducive enough for a movement. The exploitation of resources by center, its step mother attitude and large scale migration of outsiders gave a structural strain among the Assamese people and all these led to a general belief that identity of Assamese people are in crisis. Then the killing of Khargeswar Talukdar was the precipitating factors of Assam Movement. The leaders of the movement mobilize the people on the ground that a popular movement only can solve these problems. The movement was leaded by the student union and by some other organization like ASSU AAGSP, AXX etc. For that reason mechanism of social control was in the hands of leaders of those organizations.
3. Theory of Relative deprivation:
Another theory through which one can examine Assam Movement is the theory of relative deprivation. Relative Deprivation theory argues that social movements have their foundations among people who feel deprived of some good(s) or resource(s). “According to this approach, individuals who are lacking some good, service, or comfort are more likely to organize a social movement to improve (or defend) their conditions.” (Morrison 1978). As a theory, theory of Relative Deprivation, underlies a sense of deprivation relatively from its sister organs. Its shows how one object is being deprived from the rights and concessions that other objects of same types appropriate. This theory has a dual perspective. One is Institutional and other is Individual. From the institutional perspective it shows how the institutions take a policy of relative deprivation in providing economic priorities. At the individual level, this theory shows how one feels insecure and deprived from its equal counter part.
Through this theory one can assess Assam movement. In individual level the theory examines how the “Asamiya” people at large feels relative deprivation from the “Indian” imperialism and its other avenues of atrocities. They had charged of step mother attitude of Indian government towards the Assam. At the individual level the “Asamiya” people blamed that Bohiragatos, initially captured the revenues which exactly belongs to Asamiyas. In that sense, “Land” is being treated as the sense of insecurities and economic revenue as source of discontent. Thus, through this theory the reasons of the movement can be focused.
4. Theory of Reference groups:
Role of demonstrative factor also cannot be ignored regarding the emergence of Assam movement and the subsequent autonomy movement of Assam. Both this movement in fact is a result of role model. This perception can be theories in the banner of theory of reference group. In a straight line of direction, Assam movement is being inspired by the earlier two successive movements regarding “Language”, in latter part of 60’s and early part of 70’s. Therefore, there is a vast similarity found regarding the demands, strategy and organization between the two. The emergence of middle class again was a result of such role model transaction, both at the top and bottom line up.
Again as a result of Assam movement a horizontal proliferation of autonomy movements have been seen as a follow up actions Assamese chauvinism. For the Bodo’s Assam movement is the reference movement. So two language movements of Assam became the reference movement for Assam Movement and Assam Movement itself became reference for Bodo Movement.
5. The Theory of Resource Conflict:
Assam movement again can be viewed from the angle of theorization of resource conflict between the centre and the leaders of the movement, in the matters of natural resource belongs to Assam. One of the most impressive debates on such conflict was the movement of Oil Blockade. They had started “the blockade” in January 1980, with a slogan- “Tez Dim Tel Nidio” and demanded for an own refinery instead of sending of crude oil to the Barauni refinery in Bihar. It was notable that, the oil blockade obviously pressurized the centre to think seriously about the movement and to look for a solution. It has been rightly mention by the Sanjaya Hazarika in his work called- “Assam: A Crisis of Identity”, 1980 as, “Thousands of supporters of the movement on 21st December 1979 moved into various oil installations and refineries in Assam and stop the flow of crude oil to outside Assam, which led to stoppage of functioning of Barauni refinery in Bihar.”
Conclusion:
In these ways one can express Assam Movement from various ways. The movement can be examined from the above theories. And each theory accepts the movement in different ways. Thus the whole process of Assam movement needs a re-look and the possible interpretation can be made through the theories discussed above but still those theories are not sufficient, thus a further interpretation again been needed. One can again see Assam Movement from the theory of legitimacy, theory of self determination, theory of sub nationalism etc. These theories observe Assam Movement from some other angles. To these theories Assam Movement is not just a movement against foreigners but it is many more.
Reference:
1. Baruah, Sanjib: India Against Itself, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2000.
2. Denton E. Morrison: "Some Notes toward Theory on Relative Deprivation, Social Movements, and Social Change." In Louis E. Genevie, ed., Collective Behavior and Social Movements. Itasca, Ill, 1978.
3. Gohain, Hiren: Assam: The Burning Question, spectrum publications, Guwahati, 1985.
4. Guha, Amalendu: Little Nationalism Turned Chauvinist: Assam’s Anti-Foreigner Upsurge.
5. Hazarika, Bolin (ed) Society and Politics in Assam, Dept. of Political Science J.B.College, 2000.
6. Hazarika, Sanjay Assam: A Crisis of Identity, 1980.
7. Hussain, Manirul; The Assam Movement, class, ideology and identity, Manak Publication Pvt. Ltd. Delhi 1993.
8. Konwar, Narayan: Society and Politics in Assam, Book land, Guwahati, 2005.
9. Brass, Paul: The Politics in India Since Independence, Cambridge University Press, New Delhi, 1997.
ASSAM MOVEMENT:
A THEORETICAL OUTLOOK
Jointly Prepared by Pankaj Bora and Bitapi Bora.
Any part of the work is not permitted to reproduce without prior permission of the authors.
Introduction:
Social Movements are the popular uprisings. A social movement is a form of collective behaviour in which a large number of people are associated to promote or defy any change in the society. There are different types of social movements like Alternative social movements, Reformative social movements, Transformative social movements, Reactionary social movements etc. Social Movements are different in nature, objective and ideology etc. A social movement can be explained from various theories.
This paper is also an attempt to explain Assam Movement from various theories. The paper tries to see Assam Movement from various perspectives. Various writers of social movement had viewed Assam movement from various angles. To some it is a movement by upper caste Assamese people for there socio-politico-economic interest. To some others it is a movement for the safeguard of Assamese nationalities and to some others again it is a movement resulted by relative deprivation. So there are various views or theories to explain Assam Movement.
So it is become important to know Assam Movements from various theoretical perspectives. This paper, titled as “Assam Movement: A Theoretical Outlook”, is a paper which tries to observe Assam Movement from various angles. Here the paper tries to see how we can see Assam Movement from various theoretical bases and how scholars had observed it from various theories.
Importance of theorizing a movement:
Theory means a well-focused mental look taken at something in a state of consideration with the intent to grasp or understand that. It is a guide to practice, adds much to what is merely described clarifies hypotheses, and as a part of philosophy explains an issue which meets the requirements of both reason and vision. Theory as a mental outlook provides a systematic interpretation over the definite case variables. It is an exact communication of the incidents happened in the moment of time. Thus as a method of analysis the case happened in past, it provides a well set typology of assumption and interest of larger magnitude. It gives a scope for understand a situation through a given framework paradigm.
In such a narrative Assam Movement can also been theories in various theorizations of facts and figure. It could be seen in some varied angle. In short by looking into the gravity, character, motive, result and back up forces Assam movement, it can be theorizing in several parallel line of understanding.
The theoretical outlook of Assam Movement provides us a better understanding of the movements. With the help of theorizing Assam Movement one can know about the nature, scope, cause, leadership, support base and opponent of the movement. The theoretical understanding of the Assam Movement also strengthens the knowledge base of the movement. It opens new angles of analyzing the Assam Movement. So because of these above reason it is important to see Assam Movement from various perspectives.
A glimpse on Assam Movement:
The Assam movement like all other significant social movements has its roots in history and society from which it emerged. Assam movement like other social movement does not rise all of a sudden; rather there have been a rising confusion and discontent among the Assamese middle class and the Assamese people at large, which outburst in a form of a movement. Though, a feeling of deprivation and the peoples expectations rises since earlier, yet it got more visible form in the mid of 1979. With the issue of immigration, Assam Movements starts and end up with the enhancing of Assam’s infrastructural development, in a form of an Accord, known as “Assam Accord”.
Assam Movement refers to that movement which demands to stop the illegal migration of foreigner to Assam from neighboring countries. There participation in electoral process and deportation of all foreigners living illegally in Assam and also to enable the people of Assam to protect their distinct identity. The movement started in 1979 under the leadership of the ASSU and AAGSP.
To understand a movement it is important to know about the components of the movement like ideology, objectives, organization, social condition, supporters, opponents, leadership, benefited people etc. So to understand Assam Movement in a better way it is important to know these entire components. The ideology of Assam Movement was the ideology of sub nationalism, the objectives of the movement were to detect and deport foreigner from the land, economic development of the region and its inhabitants and to some scholars there was also a hidden objective of gaining political power. All Assam Student Union (AASU), All Assam Gana Sangram Parishad (AAGSP) were the main organizations behind Assam Movement. Leadership of the movement was provided by the leaders of the two organizations. They were like P.K. Mahanta, B.K Phukan etc. If some one talk about the social condition of Assam during Assam Movement then the person must say it was an underdeveloped society where in many areas outsiders (Non-Assamese) had a better position then the locals. Assam Movement was largely supported by the inhabited of Assam. The Assamese middle class supported the movement. The villain or the opponent of Assam Movement was the central government. The movement was essentially against outsiders. The people benefited from the movement were the middle class Assamese people. They gain both economic and political benefit from the movement.
Theories of Assam Movement:
In the previous part of the paper we had a rough idea about Assam Movement. Now in this part I will try to explain Assam Movement from various angles or from various theoretical perspectives. Generally one can explicate the movement from assortment of theories but in this paper I will try to focus only on five theories. These are:
1. Theory of Class approach
2. Theory of structural conduciveness
3. Theory of Relative deprivation
4. Theory of Reference groups and
5. The Theory of Resource Conflict etc.
All these theories nicely reflect the nature and cause of Assam Movement. Some of these theories also indicate the outcome of the movement. So let’s have a brief study of Assam Movement in the sphere of these theories
1. Theory of Class approach:
Theory of Class Approach was developed by Karl Marx and its successor. This theory highlights the economic exploitation of people as a cause of a movement. It also examines the class character of the movement. It tries to explain a movement by reflecting the leader class and the beneficiary class.
Assam Movement can be explained from this theory. In Assam Movement we can see the class character of the movement. Prof. Manirul Hussain in his book “The Assam Movement, Class, Ideology and Identity” and Amalendu Guha in his article “Little Nationalism Turned Chauvinist: Assam’s Anti-Foreigner Upsurge” discussed about the class character of Assam Movement.
The Assam Movement was movement against the resource exploitation of India. It was a movement by the oppress class of the Assamese society. And this movement was led or supported by the Assamese middleclass to promote there interest. To the scholars Assam Movement was a movement for the benefit of the Assamese educated middle class. So all these factor reflects the class character of the movement. Or to say the class approach to Assam Movement explains it as it is a movement because of economic exploitation leaded by Assamese middle class for their interest.
2. Theory of Structural Conduciveness:
Theory of structural conduciveness is another theory of social movement. The theory of structural conduciveness is proposed by Neil J. Smellser. He identifies six conditions that led to social movement. These are structural conduciveness, structural strains, growth and spread of generalized belief, precipitating factors, mobilization of factors and mechanism of social control.
One can see Assam Movement from structural conduciveness theory also. The Assam movement also had these conditions said by Smellser in his theory. The Assam movement was a movement in independent democratic society and the structure is conducive enough for a movement. The exploitation of resources by center, its step mother attitude and large scale migration of outsiders gave a structural strain among the Assamese people and all these led to a general belief that identity of Assamese people are in crisis. Then the killing of Khargeswar Talukdar was the precipitating factors of Assam Movement. The leaders of the movement mobilize the people on the ground that a popular movement only can solve these problems. The movement was leaded by the student union and by some other organization like ASSU AAGSP, AXX etc. For that reason mechanism of social control was in the hands of leaders of those organizations.
3. Theory of Relative deprivation:
Another theory through which one can examine Assam Movement is the theory of relative deprivation. Relative Deprivation theory argues that social movements have their foundations among people who feel deprived of some good(s) or resource(s). “According to this approach, individuals who are lacking some good, service, or comfort are more likely to organize a social movement to improve (or defend) their conditions.” (Morrison 1978). As a theory, theory of Relative Deprivation, underlies a sense of deprivation relatively from its sister organs. Its shows how one object is being deprived from the rights and concessions that other objects of same types appropriate. This theory has a dual perspective. One is Institutional and other is Individual. From the institutional perspective it shows how the institutions take a policy of relative deprivation in providing economic priorities. At the individual level, this theory shows how one feels insecure and deprived from its equal counter part.
Through this theory one can assess Assam movement. In individual level the theory examines how the “Asamiya” people at large feels relative deprivation from the “Indian” imperialism and its other avenues of atrocities. They had charged of step mother attitude of Indian government towards the Assam. At the individual level the “Asamiya” people blamed that Bohiragatos, initially captured the revenues which exactly belongs to Asamiyas. In that sense, “Land” is being treated as the sense of insecurities and economic revenue as source of discontent. Thus, through this theory the reasons of the movement can be focused.
4. Theory of Reference groups:
Role of demonstrative factor also cannot be ignored regarding the emergence of Assam movement and the subsequent autonomy movement of Assam. Both this movement in fact is a result of role model. This perception can be theories in the banner of theory of reference group. In a straight line of direction, Assam movement is being inspired by the earlier two successive movements regarding “Language”, in latter part of 60’s and early part of 70’s. Therefore, there is a vast similarity found regarding the demands, strategy and organization between the two. The emergence of middle class again was a result of such role model transaction, both at the top and bottom line up.
Again as a result of Assam movement a horizontal proliferation of autonomy movements have been seen as a follow up actions Assamese chauvinism. For the Bodo’s Assam movement is the reference movement. So two language movements of Assam became the reference movement for Assam Movement and Assam Movement itself became reference for Bodo Movement.
5. The Theory of Resource Conflict:
Assam movement again can be viewed from the angle of theorization of resource conflict between the centre and the leaders of the movement, in the matters of natural resource belongs to Assam. One of the most impressive debates on such conflict was the movement of Oil Blockade. They had started “the blockade” in January 1980, with a slogan- “Tez Dim Tel Nidio” and demanded for an own refinery instead of sending of crude oil to the Barauni refinery in Bihar. It was notable that, the oil blockade obviously pressurized the centre to think seriously about the movement and to look for a solution. It has been rightly mention by the Sanjaya Hazarika in his work called- “Assam: A Crisis of Identity”, 1980 as, “Thousands of supporters of the movement on 21st December 1979 moved into various oil installations and refineries in Assam and stop the flow of crude oil to outside Assam, which led to stoppage of functioning of Barauni refinery in Bihar.”
Conclusion:
In these ways one can express Assam Movement from various ways. The movement can be examined from the above theories. And each theory accepts the movement in different ways. Thus the whole process of Assam movement needs a re-look and the possible interpretation can be made through the theories discussed above but still those theories are not sufficient, thus a further interpretation again been needed. One can again see Assam Movement from the theory of legitimacy, theory of self determination, theory of sub nationalism etc. These theories observe Assam Movement from some other angles. To these theories Assam Movement is not just a movement against foreigners but it is many more.
Reference:
1. Baruah, Sanjib: India Against Itself, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2000.
2. Denton E. Morrison: "Some Notes toward Theory on Relative Deprivation, Social Movements, and Social Change." In Louis E. Genevie, ed., Collective Behavior and Social Movements. Itasca, Ill, 1978.
3. Gohain, Hiren: Assam: The Burning Question, spectrum publications, Guwahati, 1985.
4. Guha, Amalendu: Little Nationalism Turned Chauvinist: Assam’s Anti-Foreigner Upsurge.
5. Hazarika, Bolin (ed) Society and Politics in Assam, Dept. of Political Science J.B.College, 2000.
6. Hazarika, Sanjay Assam: A Crisis of Identity, 1980.
7. Hussain, Manirul; The Assam Movement, class, ideology and identity, Manak Publication Pvt. Ltd. Delhi 1993.
8. Konwar, Narayan: Society and Politics in Assam, Book land, Guwahati, 2005.
9. Brass, Paul: The Politics in India Since Independence, Cambridge University Press, New Delhi, 1997.
DEVELOPMENT AND HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATION IN INDIA
TITLE:
DEVELOPMENT AND HUMAN RIGHTS
VIOLATION IN INDIA
INTRODUCTION:
The concept of human rights is a very challenging issue now a day. Human rights are simply defined as the rights which every human being is entitle to enjoy and protected. These rights are civil, political, economic, social and cultural. Generally Human Rights are defined as essential claim of individual’s recognized by the society and enforced by the state. These rights are essential conditions for full development of a person as a human being. To protect all these human rights there have been a number of domestic and international documents adopted since the beginning of 20th century especially after the end of Second World War. In India also lots of provision made for this noble purpose. Many institution both government and non governmental were formed to protect these rights. Many constitutional provisions are there to look after the human rights concern in India.
Though numbers of documents and provisions are there to stop violation of Human Rights in India but it really failed in limiting violation of human rights through out the nation. Human Rights in India are violating in several grounds. Police, arm force and state agents violates human rights by using force against innocent human being, capitalist violates the human rights by exploiting poor class, minorities are being exploited by majority section of people. Woman rights and children rights are violated, people are displaced which violates the human rights. Development activities also violate human rights in India.
Development and Human Rights violation in India:
Though Human Rights are violating in several sectors but it is important to give a brief look at the violation of Human Rights in India by development activities. As India is a developing nation it has been going through a period of transition. This development and transition had resulted in Human Rights violation.
Medha Patkar in an article published in EPW said, “The people’s movement in all corners of India have bought forth number of serious issues related to rights, resources and life of the people, particularly the deprived section of the population. All these issues, if pursued in all earnest, relate to an alternative approach towards the development projects, policies and the paradigm itself. The struggle by the tribals, peasants, backward classes, labourers and other section of population against the displacement and destitution against big Dams destructive and large-scale industry, sanctuaries and national parks, five star tourism and “other developmental projects” have added an important aspect to the exploration of the alternative. Though the struggle of the project affected persons hitherto emphasized the demand for a more humane and equitable resettlement of late, particularly after 1980 in Narmada, Subannarekha, Koel-Karo, and scores of such projects the struggle have evolved a set of promises regarding the resettlement and displacement which may pave way for alterative paradigm and policy of development.”1
Dr. A.C. Shukla and Dr. Vandana Asthana Environmental Studies Center, Kanpur and University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign the world is fast running out of water. Anthropogenic activities are polluting and depleting this finite wellspring of life at a startling rate. Industrialization, intensive agriculture, toxic dumping, deforestation and construction of large dams have damaged the earth's surface water in an unreplenishable way. Quite simply, unless we change our ways and practices the world will be living with fresh water shortages in the coming future. Keeping in view the increasing demand for water the government of India brought out a new National Water Policy, which states water is a prime natural resource, a basic need and a precious national asset. Planning development and management of water resources need to be governed by national perspectives (National Water Policy, 2002). While there exists excellent literature on different alternatives to water management, the national perspective guiding water resource development in India, since independence, has focused on the supply based paradigm of large water resource development projects as the only alternative to meet water needs for such diverse purposes as irrigation, drinking water, sanitation, industrial water and other uses in a sustainable manner. The policy decision announced by the government of India on the interlinking river project for managing fresh water resources in the twenty-first century is based on the national perspective plan of a linear model of decision-making and its subsequent stages of implementation. This top down solution to India's growing water needs has stirred a controversy and debate in one of the largest democracies of the world. The paper addresses the challenges inherent in the Indian policy decision of interlinking of rivers on the contested terrain of large water resource development projects vis-a vis human rights.
The experience of development in last six decades has clearly indicated how it has led to violation of Human Rights. The violation of Human Rights by development can be sort out in the following grounds:
Industry and human rights violation:
Industry is a major source of development. Development is generally determined with industrialization. But this industrialization has led to major human rights violation in all over the world and especially in India. In India establishment of industry has polluted the nation, displaced the people and also led to violation of workers rights. In industries child are employed, workers are exploited, thousands of raw materials are over used. Industrialization led to the violation of human rights in India on the following grounds:
1. Environment: In India because of industrialization environmental pollution took place. It occurred by emission of poisonous gas, water from industries. In India industrialization also has been effecting environment by noise pollution, by its waste materials etc.
2. Displacement of population: Industrialization also led to displacement of people in India. Many industrial projects in India had displaced several local people. For example we can point out to Tata Nano project.
3. Global Warming: Another aspect of human rights violation in India by industrialization is Global Warming. Because of set up of several industries the humidity level increases in India. Industrialization has caused in global warming which violates human rights not only in India but all over the glob.
4. Child labour: Another human rights violation in India by industrialization is child rights violation. It is noticed that now a day industries are using many under aged workers as they are cheap and easily available. So it also seen that industrialization has also led to human rights violation.
In these ways industrialization in India has led to human rights violation in several grounds.
Dams and human rights violation:
Another aspect of development is constructions of dams in several parts of the nation which also results in human rights violation. In Arunachal Pradesh because of Dam several people are going to be displaced. It will also lead to flood problem in Assam. The proposal of construction of large scale Dams in Siang, Subansiri, Pagaladia, Tipaimukh. In this way construction of Dams violates human rights. Construction of dams has led to human rights violation on the following grounds:
1. Displacement of population: Construction of large scale dams had displaced a huge numbers of populations in India. Because of lake of adequate policy of the government to resettle these displaced population human rights violation take place in India.
2. Environment: In India during the construction of dams’ environment effects adversely. Dams’ construction led to deforestation, effects in bio diversity. Even construction of dams’ also effects in environment of the other areas located nearby to the dams.
3. Dam’s blast and flood: Another form of human rights violation caused by dams is blast of dams which led to flood in lower areas nearby the dams. When dam blast water flows in an unprecedented ways and the flood occurred because of it harms the people.
In these ways constriction of dams in India has led to human rights violation in several grounds.
Urbanization and human rights violation:
Another development related problem is urbanization and human rights violation. With development and rapid growth of industrialization urbanization took place. This urbanization also resulted in human rights violation in India. Because of urbanization many people were displaced. Because of it people in urban areas failed to meet minimum basic health facilities and failed to have save drinking water. Following are few areas where urbanization led to human rights violation:
1. Flood: The unplanned urbanization in India especially in big and small cities caused in artificial flood. For example we can indicate the case of Guwahati and Mumbai where a single rain can result in artificial flood.
2. Displacement: Urbanization and expansion of towns and cities’ had results in displacement of local population inhabited in nearby areas. Urbanization in India takes place in the coast of poor people who sacrifices there land in the name of development.
3. Environment: Another kind of human rights violation in India by urbanization is effect in environment. As urbanization takes place environment become imbalance. Air, soil and water get polluted because of urbanization.
In these ways urbanization in India has led to human rights violation in several grounds.
Deforestation and human right violation:
Along with development because of expansion of industries and town deforestation took place. This deforestation also led to Human rights violation by effecting the environment. It also affects the livelihood of several tribal people for whom forest is a source of livelihood. Deforestation in India violates human rights on the following grounds:
1. Environment: First of all deforestation led to adverse effect in environment. It makes the environment imbalance. It results in increase the level of carbon dioxide. It also results in less rain fall. So deforestation caused by development attacks the environment.
2. Bio-diversity: Deforestation also effects in bio-diversity. After cutting down of forest the inhabited of the forest displaced and many a time it led to end of a particular kind of inhabitant. It affects in biodiversity and in short run or in long run it affects the human rights.
In these ways deforestation in India has led to human rights violation in several grounds.
Rivers inter linking process and hr violation:
River interlinking project in India is high discussion. Many people believe that this project will violate human rights of several people. To these people river interlinking project will harm human rights on the following grounds:
1. Displacement: River interlinking project will displace a number of populations. It will displace those people who are situated in those areas where from the linking river drain will flow.
2. Bio-diversity: Again some environmentalists believe that this project will effect on bio-diversity of India. They argue that it will harm the natural balance of the Indian environment.
3. Resource exploitations: Rivers inter linking project will led to drainage of wealth from one place to another places. With river water it will carry the river resources and it will affect the local people from enjoying their own resources.
In these ways industrialization in India has led to human rights violation in several grounds.
Technology and human rights violation:
In India technology is also a source of human rights violation. The followers of Gandhian philosophy are against technology and they oppose use of technology. Use of technology violates the human rights on the following grounds:
1. Effect on ozone layer: Because use of technology various gas emission led in attacking the ozone layer. For example the gas emits from refrigerator attacks it.
2. Nuclear reactor: The nuclear reactor also violates human rights. The radio activity of nuclear reactor hams the health of people.
3. Mass killing: Technology also results in huge mass killing. Because of technology Mumbai attack by terrorist was successful. Even the last Jaipur petrol pump fire which claims a number of lives is also result of development and technology which results in human rights violation.
In these ways technology in India has led to human rights violation in several grounds.
Other sources of development in human rights violation:
Apart from all these above there are some other sources of human rights violation in India. These are like:
1. Uneven economic development: The uneven economic development in India also violates human rights. Because of uneven development many people from undeveloped areas are far from medical facilities, educational facilities.
2. Development led to trafficking: Development also led to trafficking of women and children. Because of smooth communication and transportation it became easy to traffic the weaker section illegally.
3. Arms proliferation: Developments also make arms proliferation and drugs supply much easy. Development in India helps the terrorist organization to easily transport arms and ammunitions.
In India these are the way which violates the human rights. Here we have seen that because of developmental activity large scale human rights violation take place. Development had violates all three generation of human rights.
Conclusion:
So it is seen that the development activities in India had led to violation of human rights on several grounds. In India the development activities like industrialization, constriction of dams are short sighted. These activities are not aiming sustainable d4evelopment. Unplanned urbanization and improper planning of linking the rivers results in human rights violation. Though development is resulting human rights violation but we can not say good bye to development. What we need is some sustainable development policies which will violate less human right.
Reference:
1. Patkar, Medha; “The People’s Policy on Development, Displacement and Resettlement, Need to Link Displacement and Development.” Economic and Political Weekly, September 19, 1998. Page 2432 to 2433.
BIBLOIGRAPHY:
1. Banarjee, N. and Marjid S.; “Development, Displacement and Disparity: India in the last quarter of the twentieth century.” Orient Longman publication, New Delhi, 2003.
2. Hussain, M.; “Interrogating Development: State, Displacement and Popular Resistance in North-East India.” Sage Publication, New Delhi, 2008.
3. Rajkumar, C and Chockalingam, K.; “Human Rights, Justice and Constitutional Empowerment.” Oxford, New Delhi, 2007.
4. Singh, B. P.: “Human Rights in India: problem and perspective.” Deep and Deep Publication, New Delhi, 2005.
5. Yasin, A. and Upadhyay, A.; “Human Rights” Akansha Publication House, New Delhi, 2004.
DEVELOPMENT AND HUMAN RIGHTS
VIOLATION IN INDIA
INTRODUCTION:
The concept of human rights is a very challenging issue now a day. Human rights are simply defined as the rights which every human being is entitle to enjoy and protected. These rights are civil, political, economic, social and cultural. Generally Human Rights are defined as essential claim of individual’s recognized by the society and enforced by the state. These rights are essential conditions for full development of a person as a human being. To protect all these human rights there have been a number of domestic and international documents adopted since the beginning of 20th century especially after the end of Second World War. In India also lots of provision made for this noble purpose. Many institution both government and non governmental were formed to protect these rights. Many constitutional provisions are there to look after the human rights concern in India.
Though numbers of documents and provisions are there to stop violation of Human Rights in India but it really failed in limiting violation of human rights through out the nation. Human Rights in India are violating in several grounds. Police, arm force and state agents violates human rights by using force against innocent human being, capitalist violates the human rights by exploiting poor class, minorities are being exploited by majority section of people. Woman rights and children rights are violated, people are displaced which violates the human rights. Development activities also violate human rights in India.
Development and Human Rights violation in India:
Though Human Rights are violating in several sectors but it is important to give a brief look at the violation of Human Rights in India by development activities. As India is a developing nation it has been going through a period of transition. This development and transition had resulted in Human Rights violation.
Medha Patkar in an article published in EPW said, “The people’s movement in all corners of India have bought forth number of serious issues related to rights, resources and life of the people, particularly the deprived section of the population. All these issues, if pursued in all earnest, relate to an alternative approach towards the development projects, policies and the paradigm itself. The struggle by the tribals, peasants, backward classes, labourers and other section of population against the displacement and destitution against big Dams destructive and large-scale industry, sanctuaries and national parks, five star tourism and “other developmental projects” have added an important aspect to the exploration of the alternative. Though the struggle of the project affected persons hitherto emphasized the demand for a more humane and equitable resettlement of late, particularly after 1980 in Narmada, Subannarekha, Koel-Karo, and scores of such projects the struggle have evolved a set of promises regarding the resettlement and displacement which may pave way for alterative paradigm and policy of development.”1
Dr. A.C. Shukla and Dr. Vandana Asthana Environmental Studies Center, Kanpur and University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign the world is fast running out of water. Anthropogenic activities are polluting and depleting this finite wellspring of life at a startling rate. Industrialization, intensive agriculture, toxic dumping, deforestation and construction of large dams have damaged the earth's surface water in an unreplenishable way. Quite simply, unless we change our ways and practices the world will be living with fresh water shortages in the coming future. Keeping in view the increasing demand for water the government of India brought out a new National Water Policy, which states water is a prime natural resource, a basic need and a precious national asset. Planning development and management of water resources need to be governed by national perspectives (National Water Policy, 2002). While there exists excellent literature on different alternatives to water management, the national perspective guiding water resource development in India, since independence, has focused on the supply based paradigm of large water resource development projects as the only alternative to meet water needs for such diverse purposes as irrigation, drinking water, sanitation, industrial water and other uses in a sustainable manner. The policy decision announced by the government of India on the interlinking river project for managing fresh water resources in the twenty-first century is based on the national perspective plan of a linear model of decision-making and its subsequent stages of implementation. This top down solution to India's growing water needs has stirred a controversy and debate in one of the largest democracies of the world. The paper addresses the challenges inherent in the Indian policy decision of interlinking of rivers on the contested terrain of large water resource development projects vis-a vis human rights.
The experience of development in last six decades has clearly indicated how it has led to violation of Human Rights. The violation of Human Rights by development can be sort out in the following grounds:
Industry and human rights violation:
Industry is a major source of development. Development is generally determined with industrialization. But this industrialization has led to major human rights violation in all over the world and especially in India. In India establishment of industry has polluted the nation, displaced the people and also led to violation of workers rights. In industries child are employed, workers are exploited, thousands of raw materials are over used. Industrialization led to the violation of human rights in India on the following grounds:
1. Environment: In India because of industrialization environmental pollution took place. It occurred by emission of poisonous gas, water from industries. In India industrialization also has been effecting environment by noise pollution, by its waste materials etc.
2. Displacement of population: Industrialization also led to displacement of people in India. Many industrial projects in India had displaced several local people. For example we can point out to Tata Nano project.
3. Global Warming: Another aspect of human rights violation in India by industrialization is Global Warming. Because of set up of several industries the humidity level increases in India. Industrialization has caused in global warming which violates human rights not only in India but all over the glob.
4. Child labour: Another human rights violation in India by industrialization is child rights violation. It is noticed that now a day industries are using many under aged workers as they are cheap and easily available. So it also seen that industrialization has also led to human rights violation.
In these ways industrialization in India has led to human rights violation in several grounds.
Dams and human rights violation:
Another aspect of development is constructions of dams in several parts of the nation which also results in human rights violation. In Arunachal Pradesh because of Dam several people are going to be displaced. It will also lead to flood problem in Assam. The proposal of construction of large scale Dams in Siang, Subansiri, Pagaladia, Tipaimukh. In this way construction of Dams violates human rights. Construction of dams has led to human rights violation on the following grounds:
1. Displacement of population: Construction of large scale dams had displaced a huge numbers of populations in India. Because of lake of adequate policy of the government to resettle these displaced population human rights violation take place in India.
2. Environment: In India during the construction of dams’ environment effects adversely. Dams’ construction led to deforestation, effects in bio diversity. Even construction of dams’ also effects in environment of the other areas located nearby to the dams.
3. Dam’s blast and flood: Another form of human rights violation caused by dams is blast of dams which led to flood in lower areas nearby the dams. When dam blast water flows in an unprecedented ways and the flood occurred because of it harms the people.
In these ways constriction of dams in India has led to human rights violation in several grounds.
Urbanization and human rights violation:
Another development related problem is urbanization and human rights violation. With development and rapid growth of industrialization urbanization took place. This urbanization also resulted in human rights violation in India. Because of urbanization many people were displaced. Because of it people in urban areas failed to meet minimum basic health facilities and failed to have save drinking water. Following are few areas where urbanization led to human rights violation:
1. Flood: The unplanned urbanization in India especially in big and small cities caused in artificial flood. For example we can indicate the case of Guwahati and Mumbai where a single rain can result in artificial flood.
2. Displacement: Urbanization and expansion of towns and cities’ had results in displacement of local population inhabited in nearby areas. Urbanization in India takes place in the coast of poor people who sacrifices there land in the name of development.
3. Environment: Another kind of human rights violation in India by urbanization is effect in environment. As urbanization takes place environment become imbalance. Air, soil and water get polluted because of urbanization.
In these ways urbanization in India has led to human rights violation in several grounds.
Deforestation and human right violation:
Along with development because of expansion of industries and town deforestation took place. This deforestation also led to Human rights violation by effecting the environment. It also affects the livelihood of several tribal people for whom forest is a source of livelihood. Deforestation in India violates human rights on the following grounds:
1. Environment: First of all deforestation led to adverse effect in environment. It makes the environment imbalance. It results in increase the level of carbon dioxide. It also results in less rain fall. So deforestation caused by development attacks the environment.
2. Bio-diversity: Deforestation also effects in bio-diversity. After cutting down of forest the inhabited of the forest displaced and many a time it led to end of a particular kind of inhabitant. It affects in biodiversity and in short run or in long run it affects the human rights.
In these ways deforestation in India has led to human rights violation in several grounds.
Rivers inter linking process and hr violation:
River interlinking project in India is high discussion. Many people believe that this project will violate human rights of several people. To these people river interlinking project will harm human rights on the following grounds:
1. Displacement: River interlinking project will displace a number of populations. It will displace those people who are situated in those areas where from the linking river drain will flow.
2. Bio-diversity: Again some environmentalists believe that this project will effect on bio-diversity of India. They argue that it will harm the natural balance of the Indian environment.
3. Resource exploitations: Rivers inter linking project will led to drainage of wealth from one place to another places. With river water it will carry the river resources and it will affect the local people from enjoying their own resources.
In these ways industrialization in India has led to human rights violation in several grounds.
Technology and human rights violation:
In India technology is also a source of human rights violation. The followers of Gandhian philosophy are against technology and they oppose use of technology. Use of technology violates the human rights on the following grounds:
1. Effect on ozone layer: Because use of technology various gas emission led in attacking the ozone layer. For example the gas emits from refrigerator attacks it.
2. Nuclear reactor: The nuclear reactor also violates human rights. The radio activity of nuclear reactor hams the health of people.
3. Mass killing: Technology also results in huge mass killing. Because of technology Mumbai attack by terrorist was successful. Even the last Jaipur petrol pump fire which claims a number of lives is also result of development and technology which results in human rights violation.
In these ways technology in India has led to human rights violation in several grounds.
Other sources of development in human rights violation:
Apart from all these above there are some other sources of human rights violation in India. These are like:
1. Uneven economic development: The uneven economic development in India also violates human rights. Because of uneven development many people from undeveloped areas are far from medical facilities, educational facilities.
2. Development led to trafficking: Development also led to trafficking of women and children. Because of smooth communication and transportation it became easy to traffic the weaker section illegally.
3. Arms proliferation: Developments also make arms proliferation and drugs supply much easy. Development in India helps the terrorist organization to easily transport arms and ammunitions.
In India these are the way which violates the human rights. Here we have seen that because of developmental activity large scale human rights violation take place. Development had violates all three generation of human rights.
Conclusion:
So it is seen that the development activities in India had led to violation of human rights on several grounds. In India the development activities like industrialization, constriction of dams are short sighted. These activities are not aiming sustainable d4evelopment. Unplanned urbanization and improper planning of linking the rivers results in human rights violation. Though development is resulting human rights violation but we can not say good bye to development. What we need is some sustainable development policies which will violate less human right.
Reference:
1. Patkar, Medha; “The People’s Policy on Development, Displacement and Resettlement, Need to Link Displacement and Development.” Economic and Political Weekly, September 19, 1998. Page 2432 to 2433.
BIBLOIGRAPHY:
1. Banarjee, N. and Marjid S.; “Development, Displacement and Disparity: India in the last quarter of the twentieth century.” Orient Longman publication, New Delhi, 2003.
2. Hussain, M.; “Interrogating Development: State, Displacement and Popular Resistance in North-East India.” Sage Publication, New Delhi, 2008.
3. Rajkumar, C and Chockalingam, K.; “Human Rights, Justice and Constitutional Empowerment.” Oxford, New Delhi, 2007.
4. Singh, B. P.: “Human Rights in India: problem and perspective.” Deep and Deep Publication, New Delhi, 2005.
5. Yasin, A. and Upadhyay, A.; “Human Rights” Akansha Publication House, New Delhi, 2004.
ARMED FORCES SPECIAL POWER ACT AND VIOLATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN NORTH EAST INDIA
TITLE:
ARMED FORCES SPECIAL POWER ACT
AND VIOLATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
IN NORTH EAST INDIA
INTRODUCTION:
Independent India hangs on to many cruel measures created by the Colonial rulers. In order to crush the “Quit India Movement, the British enacted the Armed Forces (Special powers) ordinance, 1942. In 1953 the Government of Assam promulgated the Assam Maintenance of public order (Autonomous Districts) Act in Naga and Tunsang hills, declaring emergency in those areas. The Assam (Disturbed Area) Act was passed in 1955. This was followed by the promulgation of Armed forces (Assam – Manipur) (special powers) ordinance in May 1958. In September 1958, after a year the parliament converted it into the Armed Forces (Assam – Manipur) special power Act. In 1972 the Act was extended to all the seven starts in the North –Eastern region of India. They are Assam, Tripura, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland.
In this paper an attempt is made to described how AFSPA carried an unrest situation in the North-East and how it has been violating the human rights of the people of the region. It is in this context, this paper seeks to give a historical and yet critical analysis of AFSPA and its adverse effect in Human Rights. The objective of this article is to analyse the AFSPA and its impact on the people of Northeast India.
WHAT IS AFSPA:
“The Armed forces (special power)” Act of 1958 is one of the more draconian legislations that the India parliament has passed in its parliamentary history. This Act shortly “AFSPA” was implemented in North-Eastern State of Assam and Manipur, and was amended in 1972 to extend to all seven states in the North-Eastern region of India. They are Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Nagaland also known as seven sisters.
This Act gives the Armed forces wide powers to shoot, arrest and all in the name of “aiding civil power”. The impact of the Act on the people of the region is dangerous. It has resulted in innumerable incidents of arbitrary detention, torture, rape and looting by security personnel. This Act has made the people of region to suffer a lot people are deprived of basic human rights which are inherent in every individual’s life. The legislation is sought to justify by the Government of India on the plea that it is required to stop the North-East states from seceding from the Indian union.
Ever since the Armed Force special power Act was enacted; parts of India have been under effective martial rule and army occupation. The 1958 Act empowers armed personnel to kill on the merest hint of suspicion, with almost complete impunity from prosecution. Yet surprisingly, or perhaps not so surprisingly it is little known outside the areas where it is applied – the North-East and Kashmir, every child knows what it means. Army with guns pointed at the ready standing at street corners, regular cordon and search operations, frisking, curfews, schools being shut, the occasional sound of gunfire, are all part of every day experience.
VIOLATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS BY AFSPA:
Indian Government has imposed Armed force (special power) Act in 1958 in Assam and Manipur and was extended to all the states of NE region in 1972 with a purpose of eliminating insurgency activities from the region. But practically no out came is seen except hurrahing the innocent people of the area. Now whole the NE region is under effective martial rule and region is under effecting martial rule and occupation. People see army men with guns pointed at the ready standing at street corners, regular cordon and search operation, frisking curfews, school being shut, occasional sound of gunfire are all part of every day experience. AFSPA has resulted in innumerable incident of arbitrary detention torture rape and looking by security personal. The region has truly become a killing field. Such incidence has affected many innocent lives and fight for justice is becoming extremely difficult for the traumatized families who have to live through the horrific experience over and over again. Recourse to Léger help is a near impossible, because the act has given such power to the armed forces personal that no body can lodge any complain against them in the police station. In that case peace keeping police authority also helpless as except the central government even the concern state government can’t do any thing against the act.
The armed forces (special power) Act passed by parliament in 1958, the AFSPA automatically comes in to force when the Indian Government designated a territory as a disturbed area. It empowers the armed forces to arrest without warrant, to conduct search and seizure without warrant and to shoot even to the causing of death or mere suspicion. No legal proceeding against abuse of such arbitrary powers can be initiated without the prior permission of the central Government. While introducing the AFSPA to maintain, “internal security” on August 18, 1958 the Government accepted it as an emergency measure and it was supposed to have remained in operation only for one year.
AFSPA gives the armed force wide and blanket powers to shoot to kill (section 4.a) arrest (section 4.c ) and search (section 4.d) without a warrant in a disturbed area in aid of the civil power .The quartets out rage of the act is order to maintain public order to maintain public order. This power to shoot to kill in to not given only to a private jawing. But in reality “every rank and file of the armed forces exercise this power. Section 4 (a) violated article 21 of the Indian constitution which provide” no present shall be deprived of his life and personal liberty except according to procedure establish by law” section 5 of the AFSPA violates article 22 of the constitution by permitting the armed forces to detain person arrest under the act for an unspecific period of time without judicial review. The south Asia Human digits documentation center right observes that this provision violates every norms of a civilized society. Section 4(a) is a denial of the fore most fundamental right to life.
Indian security forces have reportedly communed human rights violations. Over the year, several incidents of violation of human rights in the state have been documented by human right agencies, involving much death, torture destruction of properly etc. demand that the law be repealed to prevent abuse of power by security forces have been raised across the society. The law which empowers the armed forces of the union (army and paramilitary) to arrest search and even kill civilians on suspicion and provide impunity from legal action unless prior sanction is obtains from the union Government has been termed as black law or draconian law by the common denizens. Human rights are basic rights which inherent in every individual’s life without which one would not be able to live a normal life. To live in dignity is itself a fundamental right, and is also essential for the realization of all other human right – right that are universal , indivisible interconnected and interdependent. All human being are entitle to the human rights with out discrimination of any kind, such as race, color, sex, ethnicity, age, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, disability, property, birth or other status. Every woman, man, youth and child has the right to a standard of living adequate for health and well-being to food, clothing, housing, medical care and social services.
Most human right are concerned with certain fundamental freedoms allow us to fully develop and use our human qualities, our intelligence and our spiritual and other needs. They are based on life in which the inherent dignity and worth of each human being well receive respect and protection. To protect human right is to ensure that people receive some degree of decent, human treatment. To violate the most basic human right, is to deny individuals their fundamental moral entitlement. The denial of human rights and fundamental not only is an individual and personal tragedy, sow the seeds of violence and conflict between societies and nations. As the first sentence of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states respect for human rights and human dignity is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. Among the rights guaranteed to all human being under international bill of human rights or the rights to life, liberty and security of person, the right to the highest attainable standard of health, the right to just and favorable working conditions, the right to adequate food, housing and social security, the right to education, the tight to vote and take part in the conduct of public affairs and the right to participate in cultural life.
The fights between armed forces and armed opposition groups have erected a situation of internal war in the region. Addition, there are other derivatives of conflict in the form of bands, economic blockades, strikes etc. that cause destruction to private and public properties, shortages of food supplies and essential commodities. Indefinite closure of educational institutions, affect one’s personal growth, development and health.
In the protest of AFSPA darn, strikes, burning of effigies are carried out because of which school public health center closed, and right to education and adequate health are threatened. As the school remain closed for a week or sometimes month made the child deprived from right to education. Education is one of the basic rights of children; however, in conflict situations such rights are inevitably violated. Youth are facing uncertain future. There are no big industries or factory which could provide and contribute to the economic development of the state. Getting into lucrative government jobs by their luck or merit are very few.
MAJOR AREA OF HUMAN RIGHTS VILOTION BY AFSPA:
The act has been violating human rights of North East India in many areas. Among these rape, disappearance, arbitrary killing, custodial death, etc are the major areas. First, reported rape case in Manipur by the security forces was that of Ms. Ross in 1974 before AFSPA was imposed on the state. An officer of the Border Security Force repeatedly raped her. Ross committed suicide out of shame while the perpetrator went scot-free, due to lack of sufficient evidence. In the year 1996 at Ahanjaba two Army personnel raped a married woman in front of her 12-years old son, on July 19,2000 M. Mercy, a 25 years woman was, gang raped by the personnel of 112 Battalion, Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF). The family lodged the complaint immediately, but even after three months no identification parade was conduct and not a single person was arrested. Some of the glaring examples of arbitrary killing were also available like Heirangathong Massacre of 1984 where13 spectators of a volley ball match were arbitrary killed by the CRPF, Oinam massacre of 1987 where 15 villagers were arbitrary murdered by the Assam Rifles and Tera Massacre of 1993 where 5 innocent civilians were killed and many sustained bullet injuries by CRPF etc. There were cases of disappearance too. Numbers of people were disappeared when the armed forces arrest suspects. Many people never come out of the torture cell. They simply disappear. There were examples of illegal detention and torture also. Khuraijam Pranam Singh (aged about 23 years) who had an electrical shop and Ms, Naobi, a teacher by profession were in that list.
The people of NE India have witnessed three major military operations as part of counter insurgency operations. They are (1) Operation Bazrang, (2) Operation Rhino and (3) Operation Blue Bird. These three operations had also violated large scale human rights in that region.
These above are the major areas and ways of human rights violation in North East India by AFSPA of 1958. All these cases of human rights violation had very nicely symbolize the status of human rights in North East in the shadow of AFSPA.
CONCLUSION:
The imposition of AFSPA Act has led to widespread human rights violation in NE to live a normal life human rights are needed. It is inherent in every individual’s life. People should be left with them to live in dignity. It is fundamental life. Every man, woman youth and child has the right to a standard for living adequate for health and well being to food, clothing, housing, medical care and social service. But AFSPA gives the armed forces wide and blanket power to shoot to kill arrest and search without a warrant in a disturbed area in aid of the civil power. The greatest outrage of the act is depriving life on mere suspicion in order to maintain public order, it violated article 21 of the Indian constitution which provide “No person shall be deprive of his life and personnel liberty except according to procedure establish by law”. Section 5 of the AFSPA violates article 22 of the constitution by permitting the armed forces to detain person arrest under the act for an unspecific period of time without judicial review.
Repeal of AFSPA will help to create favorable condition of dialogue with militant groups in North East India. Dialogue must be a way forward and repeal of AFSPA will enable militant group will to come forward for dialogue with the government. Repeal of the Act from the region will definitely create a good atmosphere for the solution of the insurgency problem. We can site a good example of Laldenga of Mizoram. The government must look into the voices of various civil bodies and organization on the issue of repeal of AFSPA. Both, the insurgent groups as well as state authorities should not take up a rigid stand. Resolving of conflict through dialogue has been successful in many countries. Repeal of AFSPA may be a step forward in bringing peace this fragile region. Though it may not be enough, still it may create conditions of peace which will prove to be beneficial in the long run.
Reference: list:
1. Abdulrahim P. Vijapuer, Kumar Suresh, (Ed), ‘Perspective of Human Rights,’ Manak publication Ltd, 1999.
2. Baruah, Sanjib, “Durable Disorder: Under standing the polities of North – East India.” OUP, 2005
3. Kamboj, Anil,’ Manipur and Armed Forces (special power) Act 1958,’ strategic Analysis Oct –Dee –2004
4. Laishram, Dhanbir, “North – East in Benthic zone,” Akansha publication House New Delhi, 2007.
5. Maita, Kironshanker, “The Noxious web: Insurgency in NE India,” Kanishka publication, 2001.
6. Talukdar, Sushanta, ‘Manipur's protest,’ Frontline, August 27, 2004,
7. Talukdar, Sushanta, ‘A promise to Manipur,’ ‘Frontline, December, 3, 2004
8. The Asian center for human Rights, “An analysis of Armed forces special power Act, 1958” PUCL Bulletin, March, 2005
9. Yogi, A.K,”Development of the Northeast Region, Problem and Prospective,” Spectrum Publication Guahati, 1991
ARMED FORCES SPECIAL POWER ACT
AND VIOLATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
IN NORTH EAST INDIA
INTRODUCTION:
Independent India hangs on to many cruel measures created by the Colonial rulers. In order to crush the “Quit India Movement, the British enacted the Armed Forces (Special powers) ordinance, 1942. In 1953 the Government of Assam promulgated the Assam Maintenance of public order (Autonomous Districts) Act in Naga and Tunsang hills, declaring emergency in those areas. The Assam (Disturbed Area) Act was passed in 1955. This was followed by the promulgation of Armed forces (Assam – Manipur) (special powers) ordinance in May 1958. In September 1958, after a year the parliament converted it into the Armed Forces (Assam – Manipur) special power Act. In 1972 the Act was extended to all the seven starts in the North –Eastern region of India. They are Assam, Tripura, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland.
In this paper an attempt is made to described how AFSPA carried an unrest situation in the North-East and how it has been violating the human rights of the people of the region. It is in this context, this paper seeks to give a historical and yet critical analysis of AFSPA and its adverse effect in Human Rights. The objective of this article is to analyse the AFSPA and its impact on the people of Northeast India.
WHAT IS AFSPA:
“The Armed forces (special power)” Act of 1958 is one of the more draconian legislations that the India parliament has passed in its parliamentary history. This Act shortly “AFSPA” was implemented in North-Eastern State of Assam and Manipur, and was amended in 1972 to extend to all seven states in the North-Eastern region of India. They are Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Nagaland also known as seven sisters.
This Act gives the Armed forces wide powers to shoot, arrest and all in the name of “aiding civil power”. The impact of the Act on the people of the region is dangerous. It has resulted in innumerable incidents of arbitrary detention, torture, rape and looting by security personnel. This Act has made the people of region to suffer a lot people are deprived of basic human rights which are inherent in every individual’s life. The legislation is sought to justify by the Government of India on the plea that it is required to stop the North-East states from seceding from the Indian union.
Ever since the Armed Force special power Act was enacted; parts of India have been under effective martial rule and army occupation. The 1958 Act empowers armed personnel to kill on the merest hint of suspicion, with almost complete impunity from prosecution. Yet surprisingly, or perhaps not so surprisingly it is little known outside the areas where it is applied – the North-East and Kashmir, every child knows what it means. Army with guns pointed at the ready standing at street corners, regular cordon and search operations, frisking, curfews, schools being shut, the occasional sound of gunfire, are all part of every day experience.
VIOLATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS BY AFSPA:
Indian Government has imposed Armed force (special power) Act in 1958 in Assam and Manipur and was extended to all the states of NE region in 1972 with a purpose of eliminating insurgency activities from the region. But practically no out came is seen except hurrahing the innocent people of the area. Now whole the NE region is under effective martial rule and region is under effecting martial rule and occupation. People see army men with guns pointed at the ready standing at street corners, regular cordon and search operation, frisking curfews, school being shut, occasional sound of gunfire are all part of every day experience. AFSPA has resulted in innumerable incident of arbitrary detention torture rape and looking by security personal. The region has truly become a killing field. Such incidence has affected many innocent lives and fight for justice is becoming extremely difficult for the traumatized families who have to live through the horrific experience over and over again. Recourse to Léger help is a near impossible, because the act has given such power to the armed forces personal that no body can lodge any complain against them in the police station. In that case peace keeping police authority also helpless as except the central government even the concern state government can’t do any thing against the act.
The armed forces (special power) Act passed by parliament in 1958, the AFSPA automatically comes in to force when the Indian Government designated a territory as a disturbed area. It empowers the armed forces to arrest without warrant, to conduct search and seizure without warrant and to shoot even to the causing of death or mere suspicion. No legal proceeding against abuse of such arbitrary powers can be initiated without the prior permission of the central Government. While introducing the AFSPA to maintain, “internal security” on August 18, 1958 the Government accepted it as an emergency measure and it was supposed to have remained in operation only for one year.
AFSPA gives the armed force wide and blanket powers to shoot to kill (section 4.a) arrest (section 4.c ) and search (section 4.d) without a warrant in a disturbed area in aid of the civil power .The quartets out rage of the act is order to maintain public order to maintain public order. This power to shoot to kill in to not given only to a private jawing. But in reality “every rank and file of the armed forces exercise this power. Section 4 (a) violated article 21 of the Indian constitution which provide” no present shall be deprived of his life and personal liberty except according to procedure establish by law” section 5 of the AFSPA violates article 22 of the constitution by permitting the armed forces to detain person arrest under the act for an unspecific period of time without judicial review. The south Asia Human digits documentation center right observes that this provision violates every norms of a civilized society. Section 4(a) is a denial of the fore most fundamental right to life.
Indian security forces have reportedly communed human rights violations. Over the year, several incidents of violation of human rights in the state have been documented by human right agencies, involving much death, torture destruction of properly etc. demand that the law be repealed to prevent abuse of power by security forces have been raised across the society. The law which empowers the armed forces of the union (army and paramilitary) to arrest search and even kill civilians on suspicion and provide impunity from legal action unless prior sanction is obtains from the union Government has been termed as black law or draconian law by the common denizens. Human rights are basic rights which inherent in every individual’s life without which one would not be able to live a normal life. To live in dignity is itself a fundamental right, and is also essential for the realization of all other human right – right that are universal , indivisible interconnected and interdependent. All human being are entitle to the human rights with out discrimination of any kind, such as race, color, sex, ethnicity, age, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, disability, property, birth or other status. Every woman, man, youth and child has the right to a standard of living adequate for health and well-being to food, clothing, housing, medical care and social services.
Most human right are concerned with certain fundamental freedoms allow us to fully develop and use our human qualities, our intelligence and our spiritual and other needs. They are based on life in which the inherent dignity and worth of each human being well receive respect and protection. To protect human right is to ensure that people receive some degree of decent, human treatment. To violate the most basic human right, is to deny individuals their fundamental moral entitlement. The denial of human rights and fundamental not only is an individual and personal tragedy, sow the seeds of violence and conflict between societies and nations. As the first sentence of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states respect for human rights and human dignity is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. Among the rights guaranteed to all human being under international bill of human rights or the rights to life, liberty and security of person, the right to the highest attainable standard of health, the right to just and favorable working conditions, the right to adequate food, housing and social security, the right to education, the tight to vote and take part in the conduct of public affairs and the right to participate in cultural life.
The fights between armed forces and armed opposition groups have erected a situation of internal war in the region. Addition, there are other derivatives of conflict in the form of bands, economic blockades, strikes etc. that cause destruction to private and public properties, shortages of food supplies and essential commodities. Indefinite closure of educational institutions, affect one’s personal growth, development and health.
In the protest of AFSPA darn, strikes, burning of effigies are carried out because of which school public health center closed, and right to education and adequate health are threatened. As the school remain closed for a week or sometimes month made the child deprived from right to education. Education is one of the basic rights of children; however, in conflict situations such rights are inevitably violated. Youth are facing uncertain future. There are no big industries or factory which could provide and contribute to the economic development of the state. Getting into lucrative government jobs by their luck or merit are very few.
MAJOR AREA OF HUMAN RIGHTS VILOTION BY AFSPA:
The act has been violating human rights of North East India in many areas. Among these rape, disappearance, arbitrary killing, custodial death, etc are the major areas. First, reported rape case in Manipur by the security forces was that of Ms. Ross in 1974 before AFSPA was imposed on the state. An officer of the Border Security Force repeatedly raped her. Ross committed suicide out of shame while the perpetrator went scot-free, due to lack of sufficient evidence. In the year 1996 at Ahanjaba two Army personnel raped a married woman in front of her 12-years old son, on July 19,2000 M. Mercy, a 25 years woman was, gang raped by the personnel of 112 Battalion, Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF). The family lodged the complaint immediately, but even after three months no identification parade was conduct and not a single person was arrested. Some of the glaring examples of arbitrary killing were also available like Heirangathong Massacre of 1984 where13 spectators of a volley ball match were arbitrary killed by the CRPF, Oinam massacre of 1987 where 15 villagers were arbitrary murdered by the Assam Rifles and Tera Massacre of 1993 where 5 innocent civilians were killed and many sustained bullet injuries by CRPF etc. There were cases of disappearance too. Numbers of people were disappeared when the armed forces arrest suspects. Many people never come out of the torture cell. They simply disappear. There were examples of illegal detention and torture also. Khuraijam Pranam Singh (aged about 23 years) who had an electrical shop and Ms, Naobi, a teacher by profession were in that list.
The people of NE India have witnessed three major military operations as part of counter insurgency operations. They are (1) Operation Bazrang, (2) Operation Rhino and (3) Operation Blue Bird. These three operations had also violated large scale human rights in that region.
These above are the major areas and ways of human rights violation in North East India by AFSPA of 1958. All these cases of human rights violation had very nicely symbolize the status of human rights in North East in the shadow of AFSPA.
CONCLUSION:
The imposition of AFSPA Act has led to widespread human rights violation in NE to live a normal life human rights are needed. It is inherent in every individual’s life. People should be left with them to live in dignity. It is fundamental life. Every man, woman youth and child has the right to a standard for living adequate for health and well being to food, clothing, housing, medical care and social service. But AFSPA gives the armed forces wide and blanket power to shoot to kill arrest and search without a warrant in a disturbed area in aid of the civil power. The greatest outrage of the act is depriving life on mere suspicion in order to maintain public order, it violated article 21 of the Indian constitution which provide “No person shall be deprive of his life and personnel liberty except according to procedure establish by law”. Section 5 of the AFSPA violates article 22 of the constitution by permitting the armed forces to detain person arrest under the act for an unspecific period of time without judicial review.
Repeal of AFSPA will help to create favorable condition of dialogue with militant groups in North East India. Dialogue must be a way forward and repeal of AFSPA will enable militant group will to come forward for dialogue with the government. Repeal of the Act from the region will definitely create a good atmosphere for the solution of the insurgency problem. We can site a good example of Laldenga of Mizoram. The government must look into the voices of various civil bodies and organization on the issue of repeal of AFSPA. Both, the insurgent groups as well as state authorities should not take up a rigid stand. Resolving of conflict through dialogue has been successful in many countries. Repeal of AFSPA may be a step forward in bringing peace this fragile region. Though it may not be enough, still it may create conditions of peace which will prove to be beneficial in the long run.
Reference: list:
1. Abdulrahim P. Vijapuer, Kumar Suresh, (Ed), ‘Perspective of Human Rights,’ Manak publication Ltd, 1999.
2. Baruah, Sanjib, “Durable Disorder: Under standing the polities of North – East India.” OUP, 2005
3. Kamboj, Anil,’ Manipur and Armed Forces (special power) Act 1958,’ strategic Analysis Oct –Dee –2004
4. Laishram, Dhanbir, “North – East in Benthic zone,” Akansha publication House New Delhi, 2007.
5. Maita, Kironshanker, “The Noxious web: Insurgency in NE India,” Kanishka publication, 2001.
6. Talukdar, Sushanta, ‘Manipur's protest,’ Frontline, August 27, 2004,
7. Talukdar, Sushanta, ‘A promise to Manipur,’ ‘Frontline, December, 3, 2004
8. The Asian center for human Rights, “An analysis of Armed forces special power Act, 1958” PUCL Bulletin, March, 2005
9. Yogi, A.K,”Development of the Northeast Region, Problem and Prospective,” Spectrum Publication Guahati, 1991
POSTMODERNISM: A THEORITICAL ANALYSIS
TITLE:
POSTMODERNISM,
A THEORITICAL ANALYSIS
Introduction:
Postmodernism is an idea that has been controversial and difficult to define among scholars, intellectuals and historians because it is a concept that appears in a wide variety of discipline or area of study. Nevertheless most agreed that postmodern ideas have influenced philosophy, literature, art, architecture, design, marketing business, culture and interpretation of history since the late 20th century.
Meaning:
Over the last two decades the term postmodernism has been in wide use. Earlier it was only in cultural phenomena but in recent time it has entered into our academic curriculum and assumes an important status.
The meaning of postmodernism is that the prefix “post” means after and modern means “current or up to date.” It means a period after modernism.
The Compact Oxford English Dictionary refers to postmodernism as "a style and concept in the arts characterized by distrust of theories and ideologies and by the drawing of attention to conventions.”
The term postmodern is described by Merriam-Webster as meaning either "of, relating to, or being an era after a modern one" or "of, relating to, or being any of various movements in reaction to modernism that are typically characterized by a return to traditional materials and forms (as in architecture) or by ironic self-reference and absurdity (as in literature)", or finally "of, relating to, or being a theory that involves a radical reappraisal of modern assumptions about culture, identity, history, or language.”
The American Heritage Dictionary describes the meaning of the same term as "Of or relating to art, architecture, or literature that reacts against earlier modernist principles, as by reintroducing traditional or classical elements of style or by carrying modernist styles or practices to extremes: “It [a roadhouse] is so architecturally interesting … with its postmodern wooden booths and sculptural clock”.
History of the term
The term was first used around the 1870s in various areas. For example, John Watkins Chapman avowed "a postmodern style of painting" to get beyond French Impressionism Then, J.M.Thompson, in his 1914 article in “The Hibbert Journal” (a quarterly philosophical review), used it to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion: "The raison d'etre of Post-Modernism is to escape from the double-mindedness of Modernism by being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as theology, to Catholic feeling as well as to Catholic tradition."
In 1917 Rudolf Pannwitz used the term to describe a philosophically oriented culture. Pannwitz's idea of post-modernism came from Nietzsche's analysis of modernity and its ends of decadence and nihilism. Overcoming the modern human would be the post-human. But, contrary to Nietzsche, Pannwitz also includes nationalist and mythical elements.
It was used later in 1926 by B.I.Bell in his "Postmodernism & other Ess." In 1925 and 1921 it had been used to describe new forms of art and music. In 1942 H. R. Hays used it for a new literary form but as a general theory of an historical movement it was first used in 1939 by the historian Arnold J. Toynbee: "Our own Post-Modern Age has been inaugurated by the general war of 1914-1918."
In 1949 it was used to describe dissatisfaction with modern architecture, leading to the postmodern architecture movement. Postmodernism in architecture is marked by the re-emergence of surface ornament, reference to surrounding buildings in urban architecture, historical reference in decorative forms, and non-orthogonal angles. It may be a response to the modernist architectural movement known as the International Style.
The term was applied to a whole host of movements, many in art, music, and literature, that reacted against modernism, and are typically marked by revival of traditional elements and techniques. Walter Truett Anderson identifies postmodernism as one of four world views. These four worldviews are the postmodern-ironist, which sees truth as socially constructed, the scientific-rational in which truth is found through methodical, disciplined inquiry, the social-traditional in which truth is found in the heritage of American and Western civilization and the neo-romantic in which truth is found either through attaining harmony with nature or spiritual exploration of the inner self.
Scholar’s and historians most commonly hold postmodernism to be a movement of ideas that has both replaced and extended modernism by countering and borrowing from a number of modernism fundamental assumption. For example modernism places a great deal and importance on ideas seen as rationalist, objectivity and progress as well as the other ideas enlightenment and as positivist realist movement from the late 19th century- while postmodernism questioned whether these ideas can actually exist at all.
Post modernism is arises as a critic of modernism. The entry of postmodernism in common usage is very recent like 1990s. During this short period it has developed a bit and its own concept namely grand narratives, cyber people, post structuralism, truth, reality etc. the concept of post modernism is very fluid or dynamic. It carried wide open ended ness. Post modernism is against the ideas about depth and essence and the total and universal. There are lots of controversies and contradiction attended to the meaning of this theme. Again despite controversies, postmodernism stands for superficial and provisional and fragmentation and difference. To Postmodernist there is nothing real in the society nor is there any truth.
The meaning of post-modernism is quite flexible. The use of this term is different in different phases. The history of the meaning of postmodernism has undergone several changes during different phases of history. The meaning of postmodernism has changed so drastically that it is difficult to put it in a precise term. There are some definitions precise by different scholars.
Anthony Gidden: he argues that postmodernism society is highly pluralist and diverse with no grand narratives guiding its development. The postmodern society is no longer governed by history. Because of it there are countless films, videos, TV programs and websites, images circulated around the world. Postmodernist also rejects the claim of classical thinker who looks their inspiration from that idea, “history has an importance”.
Fredric Jameson: he is a neo Marxist. He argued that there is a cultural postmodernism. Jameson is quite clear about his analysis of postmodernism. Firstly – there is a culture of postmodernism. Secondly capitalism has got international dimension which give rise to new proletariat class. He tries to analyze this new class dimension. According to him it is all postmodernism.
Main features of postmodernism:
By going through different definitions, we can find out the following key features of postmodernism.
1) Postmodernism is against depth and essence.
2) Postmodernism is strongly opposed to total and universal. It is because of this opposition that Postmodernism rejects the grand theories.
3) The major force of Postmodernism is that everything in society is superficial and provisional.
4) The Postmodernism society is fully fragmented with various culture, ethnicities and plurality. They argued that there are many conflicting knowledge, identities, and needs that it is neither possible nor desirable to see the human race as a big family.
5) Postmodernism have no faith in science. People no longer believe in the myth of science.
6) Postmodernist rejects the theory of system which provides three types of system cultural, personality and the social, which included the value and norms which influence the individuals choice, personality system and social system involves individual motivation and it based on interrelation among peoples. But Postmodernism has a tendency of flexibility which is against system.
These above are the major characteristics of Postmodernism.
Notable philosophical contribution:
There are a numbers of political thinker who use postmodernism in there political study. Among them we can name Michel Foucault, Fredric Jameson and Jacques Derrida are the prominent one. Here a brief discussion on these scholars follows:
Michel Foucault:
Michel Foucault was born in 15th of October, 1926 and died in 25th June 1984. He was a French philosopher. He is known for his study of social institution, psychology, medicine, the human science and the prison system. His work on power and relationship among power, knowledge and discourse has been widely discussed. His prominent works are:
1. Madness and Civilization:
The English edition of Madness and Civilization is an abridged version of “Folie et déraison: Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique”, originally published in 1961. A full English translation titled “The History of Madness” has since been published by Routledge in 2006. Here he analyses the human madness in different stages of history. He starts from middle and he saw that in every stage of history on madness people have different views.
2. The Birth of the Clinic:
Foucault's second major book, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception (Naissance de la clinique: une archéologie du regard médical) was published in 1963 in France, and translated to English in 1973. It traces the development of the medical profession, and specifically the institution of the clinic.
3. The Order of Things:
Foucault's Les Mots et les choses. Une archéologie des sciences humaines was published in 1966. It was translated into English in 1970 under the title The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences. He argues that all periods of history have possessed specific underlying conditions of truth that constituted what was acceptable as, for example, scientific discourse. Foucault argues that these conditions of discourse have changed over time, in major and relatively sudden shifts, from one period's episteme to another
4. Discipline and Punish:
Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison was translated into English in 1977. Here he mad a comparative analysis of punishment in ancient period and modern era and noticed the change.
5. The History of Sexuality:
Three volumes of The History of Sexuality were published before Foucault's death in 1984. Here he focused on the functioning of sexuality as an analytics of power related to the emergence of a science of sexuality.
Foucault’s key points are:
1. Knowledge is the power. It rests in individuals.
2. Each individual age is characterized by particular forms of knowledge.
3. Truth is produce by power.
4. Power is exercised and it is productive.
In this way Foucault had established relation between knowledge and power. To him power is in every stage of society.
Fredric Jameson:
Fredric Jameson was born 14 April 1934. He is an American literary critic and Marxist political theorist. He is best known for his analysis of contemporary cultural trends—he once described postmodernism as the specialization of culture under the pressure of organized capitalism. Jameson's best-known books include Postmodernism: The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, The Political Unconscious, and Marxism and Form. He was a neo-Marxist.
In his writings “Postmodernism: The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism” he gave an image of a postmodern society. To him a postmodern society consists of five elements. These are:
1. It is a superficial and depthless society.
2. It has weak emotion.
3. There is lost of historicity.
4. This postmodern society is associated with technology.
5. It is characterized multicultural capitalism.
To him postmodern society is a capitalist society and there is nothing stable in this society. This society has developed a pattern of culture which is specific to it only. Here culture is comodified and it becomes saleable. Jameson talks about three stages of capitalism a) Market capitalism, b) Monopoly capitalism and c) Late capitalism.
Jacques Derrida:
Derrida was born at 15 July 1930 and died at 8 October 2004. He was a French philosopher born in Algeria, who is known as the founder of deconstruction. His voluminous work had a profound impact upon literary theory and continental philosophy. Derrida's best known work is Of Grammatology. His central contribution to postmodernism is deconstruction.
Derrida argues that there is fragmentation and instability of languages in postmodernism. He established that the meaning of texts can be plural and unstable rather than in fixing them to a rigid structure. To him the meaning or truth is determined by the limitation of discipline, which supposedly discovered and describes them. To him meaning is never absolute, nor is truth. Each one is conditioned by special and social knowledge.
Criticism of post modernism:
The criticisms of the postmodernism are often complicated by the nature of term. There are some critics of this concept like Gloria E. Anzaldúa, Paul Auster, Rosenau . Rosenau (1993) identifies seven contradictions in Postmodernism:
1. Its anti-theoretical position is essentially a theoretical stand.
2. While Postmodernism stresses the irrational, instruments of reason are freely employed to advance its perspective.
3. The Postmodern prescription to focus on the marginal is itself an evaluative emphasis of precisely the sort that it otherwise attacks.
4. Postmodernism stress intertextuality but often treats text in isolation.
5. By adamantly rejecting modern criteria for assessing theory, Postmodernists cannot argue that there are no valid criteria for judgments.
6. Postmodernism criticizes the inconsistency of modernism, but refuses to be held to norms of consistency itself.
7. Postmodernists contradict themselves by relinquishing truth claims in their own writings.
. These are the major criticism of postmodernism. Although postmodern theory is criticized on several grounds but it is one of the most famous theories of recent decades. In last few decades because of its practical analysis it has very rightly explained the present capitalist society.
Conclusion:
In concluding remarks it can be said that postmodernism in recent time a very popular theory in political science and it succeeded in explaining the present situation of society. It has opened a new hope in political science by rejecting grand theories like Marxism, Liberalism, realism etc.
Reference List:
1. Doshi, S.L; Modernity, Postmodernity and Neo-sociological Theories. Rawat Publications, Jaipur and New Delhi, 2003.
2. Foucault, Michel; The Archeology of Knowledge. Pantheon Books, New York, 1972.
3. Harvey, David; The Conditions of Postmodernity, Blackwell, London, 1989.
4. Powell Jim; Postmodernism For Beginners, Orient Longman, 2001.
5. Sheridan, Alan; The will to power. Routtedge, London, 1980.
6. Smart, B; Michel Foucault, London, Tavistock, 1985.
7. Www,google.com
8. Www.jstor.com
POSTMODERNISM,
A THEORITICAL ANALYSIS
Introduction:
Postmodernism is an idea that has been controversial and difficult to define among scholars, intellectuals and historians because it is a concept that appears in a wide variety of discipline or area of study. Nevertheless most agreed that postmodern ideas have influenced philosophy, literature, art, architecture, design, marketing business, culture and interpretation of history since the late 20th century.
Meaning:
Over the last two decades the term postmodernism has been in wide use. Earlier it was only in cultural phenomena but in recent time it has entered into our academic curriculum and assumes an important status.
The meaning of postmodernism is that the prefix “post” means after and modern means “current or up to date.” It means a period after modernism.
The Compact Oxford English Dictionary refers to postmodernism as "a style and concept in the arts characterized by distrust of theories and ideologies and by the drawing of attention to conventions.”
The term postmodern is described by Merriam-Webster as meaning either "of, relating to, or being an era after a modern one" or "of, relating to, or being any of various movements in reaction to modernism that are typically characterized by a return to traditional materials and forms (as in architecture) or by ironic self-reference and absurdity (as in literature)", or finally "of, relating to, or being a theory that involves a radical reappraisal of modern assumptions about culture, identity, history, or language.”
The American Heritage Dictionary describes the meaning of the same term as "Of or relating to art, architecture, or literature that reacts against earlier modernist principles, as by reintroducing traditional or classical elements of style or by carrying modernist styles or practices to extremes: “It [a roadhouse] is so architecturally interesting … with its postmodern wooden booths and sculptural clock”.
History of the term
The term was first used around the 1870s in various areas. For example, John Watkins Chapman avowed "a postmodern style of painting" to get beyond French Impressionism Then, J.M.Thompson, in his 1914 article in “The Hibbert Journal” (a quarterly philosophical review), used it to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion: "The raison d'etre of Post-Modernism is to escape from the double-mindedness of Modernism by being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as theology, to Catholic feeling as well as to Catholic tradition."
In 1917 Rudolf Pannwitz used the term to describe a philosophically oriented culture. Pannwitz's idea of post-modernism came from Nietzsche's analysis of modernity and its ends of decadence and nihilism. Overcoming the modern human would be the post-human. But, contrary to Nietzsche, Pannwitz also includes nationalist and mythical elements.
It was used later in 1926 by B.I.Bell in his "Postmodernism & other Ess." In 1925 and 1921 it had been used to describe new forms of art and music. In 1942 H. R. Hays used it for a new literary form but as a general theory of an historical movement it was first used in 1939 by the historian Arnold J. Toynbee: "Our own Post-Modern Age has been inaugurated by the general war of 1914-1918."
In 1949 it was used to describe dissatisfaction with modern architecture, leading to the postmodern architecture movement. Postmodernism in architecture is marked by the re-emergence of surface ornament, reference to surrounding buildings in urban architecture, historical reference in decorative forms, and non-orthogonal angles. It may be a response to the modernist architectural movement known as the International Style.
The term was applied to a whole host of movements, many in art, music, and literature, that reacted against modernism, and are typically marked by revival of traditional elements and techniques. Walter Truett Anderson identifies postmodernism as one of four world views. These four worldviews are the postmodern-ironist, which sees truth as socially constructed, the scientific-rational in which truth is found through methodical, disciplined inquiry, the social-traditional in which truth is found in the heritage of American and Western civilization and the neo-romantic in which truth is found either through attaining harmony with nature or spiritual exploration of the inner self.
Scholar’s and historians most commonly hold postmodernism to be a movement of ideas that has both replaced and extended modernism by countering and borrowing from a number of modernism fundamental assumption. For example modernism places a great deal and importance on ideas seen as rationalist, objectivity and progress as well as the other ideas enlightenment and as positivist realist movement from the late 19th century- while postmodernism questioned whether these ideas can actually exist at all.
Post modernism is arises as a critic of modernism. The entry of postmodernism in common usage is very recent like 1990s. During this short period it has developed a bit and its own concept namely grand narratives, cyber people, post structuralism, truth, reality etc. the concept of post modernism is very fluid or dynamic. It carried wide open ended ness. Post modernism is against the ideas about depth and essence and the total and universal. There are lots of controversies and contradiction attended to the meaning of this theme. Again despite controversies, postmodernism stands for superficial and provisional and fragmentation and difference. To Postmodernist there is nothing real in the society nor is there any truth.
The meaning of post-modernism is quite flexible. The use of this term is different in different phases. The history of the meaning of postmodernism has undergone several changes during different phases of history. The meaning of postmodernism has changed so drastically that it is difficult to put it in a precise term. There are some definitions precise by different scholars.
Anthony Gidden: he argues that postmodernism society is highly pluralist and diverse with no grand narratives guiding its development. The postmodern society is no longer governed by history. Because of it there are countless films, videos, TV programs and websites, images circulated around the world. Postmodernist also rejects the claim of classical thinker who looks their inspiration from that idea, “history has an importance”.
Fredric Jameson: he is a neo Marxist. He argued that there is a cultural postmodernism. Jameson is quite clear about his analysis of postmodernism. Firstly – there is a culture of postmodernism. Secondly capitalism has got international dimension which give rise to new proletariat class. He tries to analyze this new class dimension. According to him it is all postmodernism.
Main features of postmodernism:
By going through different definitions, we can find out the following key features of postmodernism.
1) Postmodernism is against depth and essence.
2) Postmodernism is strongly opposed to total and universal. It is because of this opposition that Postmodernism rejects the grand theories.
3) The major force of Postmodernism is that everything in society is superficial and provisional.
4) The Postmodernism society is fully fragmented with various culture, ethnicities and plurality. They argued that there are many conflicting knowledge, identities, and needs that it is neither possible nor desirable to see the human race as a big family.
5) Postmodernism have no faith in science. People no longer believe in the myth of science.
6) Postmodernist rejects the theory of system which provides three types of system cultural, personality and the social, which included the value and norms which influence the individuals choice, personality system and social system involves individual motivation and it based on interrelation among peoples. But Postmodernism has a tendency of flexibility which is against system.
These above are the major characteristics of Postmodernism.
Notable philosophical contribution:
There are a numbers of political thinker who use postmodernism in there political study. Among them we can name Michel Foucault, Fredric Jameson and Jacques Derrida are the prominent one. Here a brief discussion on these scholars follows:
Michel Foucault:
Michel Foucault was born in 15th of October, 1926 and died in 25th June 1984. He was a French philosopher. He is known for his study of social institution, psychology, medicine, the human science and the prison system. His work on power and relationship among power, knowledge and discourse has been widely discussed. His prominent works are:
1. Madness and Civilization:
The English edition of Madness and Civilization is an abridged version of “Folie et déraison: Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique”, originally published in 1961. A full English translation titled “The History of Madness” has since been published by Routledge in 2006. Here he analyses the human madness in different stages of history. He starts from middle and he saw that in every stage of history on madness people have different views.
2. The Birth of the Clinic:
Foucault's second major book, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception (Naissance de la clinique: une archéologie du regard médical) was published in 1963 in France, and translated to English in 1973. It traces the development of the medical profession, and specifically the institution of the clinic.
3. The Order of Things:
Foucault's Les Mots et les choses. Une archéologie des sciences humaines was published in 1966. It was translated into English in 1970 under the title The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences. He argues that all periods of history have possessed specific underlying conditions of truth that constituted what was acceptable as, for example, scientific discourse. Foucault argues that these conditions of discourse have changed over time, in major and relatively sudden shifts, from one period's episteme to another
4. Discipline and Punish:
Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison was translated into English in 1977. Here he mad a comparative analysis of punishment in ancient period and modern era and noticed the change.
5. The History of Sexuality:
Three volumes of The History of Sexuality were published before Foucault's death in 1984. Here he focused on the functioning of sexuality as an analytics of power related to the emergence of a science of sexuality.
Foucault’s key points are:
1. Knowledge is the power. It rests in individuals.
2. Each individual age is characterized by particular forms of knowledge.
3. Truth is produce by power.
4. Power is exercised and it is productive.
In this way Foucault had established relation between knowledge and power. To him power is in every stage of society.
Fredric Jameson:
Fredric Jameson was born 14 April 1934. He is an American literary critic and Marxist political theorist. He is best known for his analysis of contemporary cultural trends—he once described postmodernism as the specialization of culture under the pressure of organized capitalism. Jameson's best-known books include Postmodernism: The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, The Political Unconscious, and Marxism and Form. He was a neo-Marxist.
In his writings “Postmodernism: The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism” he gave an image of a postmodern society. To him a postmodern society consists of five elements. These are:
1. It is a superficial and depthless society.
2. It has weak emotion.
3. There is lost of historicity.
4. This postmodern society is associated with technology.
5. It is characterized multicultural capitalism.
To him postmodern society is a capitalist society and there is nothing stable in this society. This society has developed a pattern of culture which is specific to it only. Here culture is comodified and it becomes saleable. Jameson talks about three stages of capitalism a) Market capitalism, b) Monopoly capitalism and c) Late capitalism.
Jacques Derrida:
Derrida was born at 15 July 1930 and died at 8 October 2004. He was a French philosopher born in Algeria, who is known as the founder of deconstruction. His voluminous work had a profound impact upon literary theory and continental philosophy. Derrida's best known work is Of Grammatology. His central contribution to postmodernism is deconstruction.
Derrida argues that there is fragmentation and instability of languages in postmodernism. He established that the meaning of texts can be plural and unstable rather than in fixing them to a rigid structure. To him the meaning or truth is determined by the limitation of discipline, which supposedly discovered and describes them. To him meaning is never absolute, nor is truth. Each one is conditioned by special and social knowledge.
Criticism of post modernism:
The criticisms of the postmodernism are often complicated by the nature of term. There are some critics of this concept like Gloria E. Anzaldúa, Paul Auster, Rosenau . Rosenau (1993) identifies seven contradictions in Postmodernism:
1. Its anti-theoretical position is essentially a theoretical stand.
2. While Postmodernism stresses the irrational, instruments of reason are freely employed to advance its perspective.
3. The Postmodern prescription to focus on the marginal is itself an evaluative emphasis of precisely the sort that it otherwise attacks.
4. Postmodernism stress intertextuality but often treats text in isolation.
5. By adamantly rejecting modern criteria for assessing theory, Postmodernists cannot argue that there are no valid criteria for judgments.
6. Postmodernism criticizes the inconsistency of modernism, but refuses to be held to norms of consistency itself.
7. Postmodernists contradict themselves by relinquishing truth claims in their own writings.
. These are the major criticism of postmodernism. Although postmodern theory is criticized on several grounds but it is one of the most famous theories of recent decades. In last few decades because of its practical analysis it has very rightly explained the present capitalist society.
Conclusion:
In concluding remarks it can be said that postmodernism in recent time a very popular theory in political science and it succeeded in explaining the present situation of society. It has opened a new hope in political science by rejecting grand theories like Marxism, Liberalism, realism etc.
Reference List:
1. Doshi, S.L; Modernity, Postmodernity and Neo-sociological Theories. Rawat Publications, Jaipur and New Delhi, 2003.
2. Foucault, Michel; The Archeology of Knowledge. Pantheon Books, New York, 1972.
3. Harvey, David; The Conditions of Postmodernity, Blackwell, London, 1989.
4. Powell Jim; Postmodernism For Beginners, Orient Longman, 2001.
5. Sheridan, Alan; The will to power. Routtedge, London, 1980.
6. Smart, B; Michel Foucault, London, Tavistock, 1985.
7. Www,google.com
8. Www.jstor.com
New trends in political theory
TITLE:
New trends in political theory
Introduction:
Political theory defines conception regarded as political. Political theory as a part of political science deals with political ideas, values and concepts. Political theory means overwhelm analysis of what exactly construct political orders. In simple it involves both the philosophy and science of state and government. It is both normative and empirical. It systematically reflects political institutions. Political theory is like an ideology to analyse, understand and explain the phenomena of politics.
Political theory plays an important role in the development of political science. It places various alternative principles before political science to analyse political problems. It tries to offer a standard form of political situation before individual and society.
Political theory does not evolve in a matter of co incidence. It developed through a historical process. The growth of political theory can classify in few phases like old trends (a) classical phase b) modern phase c) post modern phase) and d) recent new phase.
Old trends in political theory:
Classical phase starts with ancient Greek political thinkers and continue till the beginning of 19th century. It deals with law, forms of governments, justice etc. modern political theory includes new values and ideas this phase studied the human behaviour. Post modern phase starts after 1960’s. In this phase thinkers like Rawls, Nozick, Foucault developed several political theories.
New trends in political theory:
In last few decades political theory has start a new journey with some new agendas and issues. It just not limits its scope in justice, liberty, democracy or other issues related to state and government institutions. On the contrary it has changes and it adopted a new trends. Now this new trend discuss not only the old issues confined to state and other political institution but it has also added some new areas. These are:
1. Contestation over capacity and legitimacy of state:
In last few years in political theory the question of legitimacy of state become an important one. With the liberalization of market policy the state become a minimal state with a few responsibilities in hand. In India also with the implementation LPG state become a minimal state. But recently with the failure of liberal market policy to uplift the standard of common people’s life though having a sound GDP, the government starts some welfare policies like NREGA, NRHM etc, which is against the concept of minimal state. So a debate is there that whether state should interfere in people life or not. This debate led to the question of legitimacy of state as if it has nothing to do like welfare activities then what is the need of state. It also challenged the capacity of state that to what extend it can interfere in people’s life.
Though the question of role of state in human life there in old trends in political science but it was not like that as it emerge at these days as earlier it was on the issue of communist state or a liberal state but now it is in case of all states.
2. Contestation over the values like Democracy, Liberty etc.
Another concern area of new trends in political theory is the issues of contestation over the values like democracy, liberty and question of ideology. In recent time the debate is not which form of government like dictatorship or democracy but on what kind of democracy like participatory democracy. What kind of participatory. Participation of individual’s as a citizen of the nation or participation as a member of his community, cast and ethnicity is a question now a day.
3. Issues of representation:
Issue of representation in global and transnation organization is also a new area of debate. The countries like India follow the policies adopted by WTO, and IMF. As they take loan from them they are bound to work with that type of development model. But it is important to see that in these institutions there is no representative from these countries. So the question of representation in global organization is also a new area of debate in political theory.
4. Creative and obsessive self:
Again one more area of debate in new trends of political theory is the rise of social movements and its ironic nature. Now against the coercive character of state a number of social movements against state outbreak. But it is very strange to see that in these movements the co strugglers become the co enemies. They, instead of fighting against the coercive state now, they are fighting in-between themselves.
5. Multi culturalism:
Another trend in political science is the multiculturalism. With the development of multi cultural trends the question of homogeneous development program is challenged by various ethnic and secessionist movements. It led to a crisis in the concept of unity in diversity. This is also an area where recent political theory is debating.
6. Globalization, market fundamentalism and religious fundamentalism and clash of civilization:
Another debate in political theory now a day is the debate regarding the implementation of globalization. Many political theorists now believe that the globalization in the name of a competitive market leads to hegemony or monopoly of few multinational companies. Again they also believe that as all political parties accepts the same economic policy so they starts differentiating themselves on the grounds of religion, caste, language which led to religious fundamentalism.
7. Resource curse:
Recent development in political theory is talking about resource curse. To these thinkers the resources now become a curse to the state. There is war because of the resource. Again there is debate over who will control the resource, the central government or the local government.
8. Contestation over the issue of sovereignty:
Another issue of debate in modern political theory is the issue of sovereignty. A modern school of political thinker debates whether the nation state can talk on the sovereignty issue or can’t. They debate on can Indian government seat in peace talk with ULFA with sovereignty as a main issue or not.
9. Debate on climate responsibilities:
Climate change and global warming are few challenges related to third generation of human rights. The unprecedented unsustainable development had result in huge human rights violation across the glob. Now the nations both developing and developed are talking about control on development activities to stop this HR violation. But there is a debate also going on that who, developed or developing nation will play the role in doing so? To the East the developing nations should play the role and to the developing it is the duty of the developed. A major debate in political science is also going on regarding this issue. So it is also an uprising issue in political theory.
10. Peoples movements:
One more area of recent political theory debate is the transformation of aims and goal of new social movements. Now a day social movements are not confined in small matters like ethnicity, cast etc. but its aims are for universal development. Now the social movements are fighting for human rights, environmental rights etc. So it is also a new area in political theory.
11. Third sphere – civil society:
The debate on the definition and role of civil society in human life is also a concern of political theory in the recent trends. Civil society is recognized as the third sphere of human life. So it plays an important role in human life. But there is a debate going on that can civil society is recognized as an alternative to the state. To what extend civil society can assist human being as a political institution.
Conclusion:
So these are the emerging trends in political theory. Though some of them were also in the old phase but the nature was quite different from the recent one. These new trends in political theory has clearly indicates that political science is changing with the time and become more related to human life than earlier before. Now political theory has encompasses all concern matters of human being which have any relation with politics.
New trends in political theory
Introduction:
Political theory defines conception regarded as political. Political theory as a part of political science deals with political ideas, values and concepts. Political theory means overwhelm analysis of what exactly construct political orders. In simple it involves both the philosophy and science of state and government. It is both normative and empirical. It systematically reflects political institutions. Political theory is like an ideology to analyse, understand and explain the phenomena of politics.
Political theory plays an important role in the development of political science. It places various alternative principles before political science to analyse political problems. It tries to offer a standard form of political situation before individual and society.
Political theory does not evolve in a matter of co incidence. It developed through a historical process. The growth of political theory can classify in few phases like old trends (a) classical phase b) modern phase c) post modern phase) and d) recent new phase.
Old trends in political theory:
Classical phase starts with ancient Greek political thinkers and continue till the beginning of 19th century. It deals with law, forms of governments, justice etc. modern political theory includes new values and ideas this phase studied the human behaviour. Post modern phase starts after 1960’s. In this phase thinkers like Rawls, Nozick, Foucault developed several political theories.
New trends in political theory:
In last few decades political theory has start a new journey with some new agendas and issues. It just not limits its scope in justice, liberty, democracy or other issues related to state and government institutions. On the contrary it has changes and it adopted a new trends. Now this new trend discuss not only the old issues confined to state and other political institution but it has also added some new areas. These are:
1. Contestation over capacity and legitimacy of state:
In last few years in political theory the question of legitimacy of state become an important one. With the liberalization of market policy the state become a minimal state with a few responsibilities in hand. In India also with the implementation LPG state become a minimal state. But recently with the failure of liberal market policy to uplift the standard of common people’s life though having a sound GDP, the government starts some welfare policies like NREGA, NRHM etc, which is against the concept of minimal state. So a debate is there that whether state should interfere in people life or not. This debate led to the question of legitimacy of state as if it has nothing to do like welfare activities then what is the need of state. It also challenged the capacity of state that to what extend it can interfere in people’s life.
Though the question of role of state in human life there in old trends in political science but it was not like that as it emerge at these days as earlier it was on the issue of communist state or a liberal state but now it is in case of all states.
2. Contestation over the values like Democracy, Liberty etc.
Another concern area of new trends in political theory is the issues of contestation over the values like democracy, liberty and question of ideology. In recent time the debate is not which form of government like dictatorship or democracy but on what kind of democracy like participatory democracy. What kind of participatory. Participation of individual’s as a citizen of the nation or participation as a member of his community, cast and ethnicity is a question now a day.
3. Issues of representation:
Issue of representation in global and transnation organization is also a new area of debate. The countries like India follow the policies adopted by WTO, and IMF. As they take loan from them they are bound to work with that type of development model. But it is important to see that in these institutions there is no representative from these countries. So the question of representation in global organization is also a new area of debate in political theory.
4. Creative and obsessive self:
Again one more area of debate in new trends of political theory is the rise of social movements and its ironic nature. Now against the coercive character of state a number of social movements against state outbreak. But it is very strange to see that in these movements the co strugglers become the co enemies. They, instead of fighting against the coercive state now, they are fighting in-between themselves.
5. Multi culturalism:
Another trend in political science is the multiculturalism. With the development of multi cultural trends the question of homogeneous development program is challenged by various ethnic and secessionist movements. It led to a crisis in the concept of unity in diversity. This is also an area where recent political theory is debating.
6. Globalization, market fundamentalism and religious fundamentalism and clash of civilization:
Another debate in political theory now a day is the debate regarding the implementation of globalization. Many political theorists now believe that the globalization in the name of a competitive market leads to hegemony or monopoly of few multinational companies. Again they also believe that as all political parties accepts the same economic policy so they starts differentiating themselves on the grounds of religion, caste, language which led to religious fundamentalism.
7. Resource curse:
Recent development in political theory is talking about resource curse. To these thinkers the resources now become a curse to the state. There is war because of the resource. Again there is debate over who will control the resource, the central government or the local government.
8. Contestation over the issue of sovereignty:
Another issue of debate in modern political theory is the issue of sovereignty. A modern school of political thinker debates whether the nation state can talk on the sovereignty issue or can’t. They debate on can Indian government seat in peace talk with ULFA with sovereignty as a main issue or not.
9. Debate on climate responsibilities:
Climate change and global warming are few challenges related to third generation of human rights. The unprecedented unsustainable development had result in huge human rights violation across the glob. Now the nations both developing and developed are talking about control on development activities to stop this HR violation. But there is a debate also going on that who, developed or developing nation will play the role in doing so? To the East the developing nations should play the role and to the developing it is the duty of the developed. A major debate in political science is also going on regarding this issue. So it is also an uprising issue in political theory.
10. Peoples movements:
One more area of recent political theory debate is the transformation of aims and goal of new social movements. Now a day social movements are not confined in small matters like ethnicity, cast etc. but its aims are for universal development. Now the social movements are fighting for human rights, environmental rights etc. So it is also a new area in political theory.
11. Third sphere – civil society:
The debate on the definition and role of civil society in human life is also a concern of political theory in the recent trends. Civil society is recognized as the third sphere of human life. So it plays an important role in human life. But there is a debate going on that can civil society is recognized as an alternative to the state. To what extend civil society can assist human being as a political institution.
Conclusion:
So these are the emerging trends in political theory. Though some of them were also in the old phase but the nature was quite different from the recent one. These new trends in political theory has clearly indicates that political science is changing with the time and become more related to human life than earlier before. Now political theory has encompasses all concern matters of human being which have any relation with politics.
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